Aim The aim of this study was to analyse the impact of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) on the lives of young people and identify factors that promote resilience to mental health difficulties within this population. Methods The study used a mixed methods approach. Results from the analysis of data from a longitudinal population-based birth cohort, the Avon longitudinal Study of Parents and Children {n=6,902) were synthesised with qualitative data from a purposive sample of 11 young people with clinically diagnosed DCD aged 11 to 16 years. Findings from the qualitative study highlighted areas that were important in the lives of the young people interviewed. These areas, such as the importance of friendship groups, bullying and a positive sense of self, were added to the final analytical model as explanatory mediators in the relationship between DCD and mental health difficulties. Findings In total, 123 young people (1.8% of the eligible cohort aged seven years), met all four diagnostic criteria for DCD using strict (5th centile) cut-offs (severe DCD). In addition, 346 young people met wider inclusion criteria (15th centile of a motor test and activity of daily living scales) and were defined as having moderate or severe DCD. These young people with moderate or severe DCD had increased odds of difficulties in attention, short-term memory, social communication, non-verbal skills, reading and spelling. They also had increased odds of self-reported depression, odds ratio: 2.08 (95% confidence interval (Cl) 1.36 to 3.19) and parent reported mental health difficulties, odds ratio: 4.23 (95% Cl 3.10 to 5.77) at age nine to ten years. The young people interviewed did not see themselves as disabled. Factors that increased a positive sense of self were inclusion in friendship groups, information that helped them understand their difficulties and being understood by parents and teachers. These findings were mirrored in the quantitative analysis which showed that the odds of mental health difficulties reduced after accounting for social communication difficulties, bullying, lower verbal intelligence and self-esteem. Conclusions Developmental Coordination Disorder is a common developmental disorder in childhood. The difficulties seen in these young people are complex and assessment needs to be multidisciplinary and consider neurological causes of poor motor coordination, the presence of coexisting developmental difficulties and associated mental health difficulties. Due to the high prevalence of the condition, ongoing one-to-one therapeutic interventions are not feasible. School based interventions, using therapists as trainers, working within a socio-medical model of disability, could work to promote resilience within the individual and improve the acceptance of differences in abilities within the school.

This thesis examines prisoners’ experiences of imprisonment. Initially, some of the challenges that prisoners face during imprisonment are considered, of which bullying represents a prominent feature. A systematic review of literature exploring bullying within prisons is presented, with emphasis on the nature and prevalence of bullying and the characteristics of those involved. High rates of bullying within prisons are reported, with prisoners tending to have experience in both perpetration and victimisation. The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS; Snaith & Zigmond, 1994) is suggested as a useful tool for measuring psychological wellbeing within prisoners. The measure is investigated in terms of its reliability and validity. Finally, an empirical research study exploring the influence of perceived safety and social support on the psychological wellbeing of prisoners in open conditions is described. The study employed a mixed-method design, using both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Results revealed relatively low levels of anxiety and depression among prisoners with high levels of perceived safety. There were some significant differences in social support according to levels of anxiety and depression but prisoners’ concerns about trust and fear of being moved back to closed conditions limited the degree to which they sought support from relationships within prison.

Background Deliberate self-harm (DSH) is a common problem among adolescents in Ireland and internationally. However, large scale population-based studies of adolescent self-harm and its correlates have been lacking. Method Data were obtained from a cross-sectional school-based study conducted in Ireland (n=3,881) and in six other centres of the Child and Adolescent Self-harm in Europe (CASE) study. Across all 7 centres over 30,000 adolescents participated. Data were gathered on lifestyle, self-harm thoughts and behaviour, life events, psychological characteristics and support available. Results The factors associated with DSH among Irish adolescents differed by gender, but among both genders drug use and knowing a friend who had engaged in self-harm were associated with DSH. Among Irish boys, strong associations were found between bullying and poor mental health and DSH. In the international CASE sample, increased history of self-harm thoughts and acts was associated with greater depression, anxiety and impulsivity, lower self esteem and increased prevalence of negative life events. Mediating effects of emotion-oriented coping on associations between mental health factors and DSH was found for both genders and between problem-oriented coping and mental health factors for girls. Self-harm thoughts were common among resilient adolescents exposed to suicidal behaviour of others. Vulnerability factors among exposed boys were drug use and anxiety. Among girls, drug use, bullying and abuse were vulnerability factors, while resilience was associated with self-esteem and problem-oriented coping. Conclusion These findings can aid in the identification of young people at risk of self-harm in the school setting and highlight the importance of mental health, peer-related and lifestyle factors in the development of DSH. Findings relating to the importance of positive coping skills can inform positive mental health programmes. Knowledge of the factors associated with positive adaptation among at-risk adolescents can inform prevention efforts among this group.

Being the victim of bullying is a problem for many children and young people, yet challenges in defining the term and methodological issues have made research findings difficult to compare (Pugh & Chitiyo, 2012). Nevertheless, there is agreement that certain factors at different ecological levels can raise or lower the likelihood of being bullied, and that children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) tend to be more vulnerable than their peers without ASD. The social impairments at the core of ASD have led to these children being termed “perfect victims” (Klin, Volkmar, & Sparrow, 2000, p. 6), although their developmental and behavioural profiles may mean that some bullying research conducted with typically developing peers is inappropriate for this group. Nevertheless, if left unaddressed, the problem of bullying may prevent inclusion in school and have serious negative effects on the child.The aim of the current study was to investigate prevalence, victim role, risk and protective factors for being bullied among children and young people with ASD, using a representative sample taken from the evaluation of Achievement for All (Humphrey et al., 2011). An embedded mixed methods design was used to permit a richer understanding of being bullied. For the risk and protection analyses there were 722 responses from teachers and 119 from parents concerning children with ASD. Teachers and parents completed a survey on bullying and wider outcome areas, with additional contextual data collected. Data were analysed using multiple regression, including a cumulative risk analysis. There were five focus pupils in the qualitative strand, and interviews were conducted with teachers, parents and pupils to investigate issues around being bullied. Thematic analysis was used to explore the interview data.Results indicated that children and young people with ASD were bullied more than other pupils with Special Educational Needs and Disabilities, although actual prevalence varied greatly according to the method of measurement. Children with ASD were more likely to be victims, although the proportion of bully-victims was higher than in the general population. A multiple regression analysis with bullying mean score as the dependent variable indicated that 43% of variance was attributable to the predictor variables in the teacher model, and 38% in the parent one. Risk factors were having higher levels of behaviour problems, being in Years 5, 7 and 10 (compared with Year 1), use of public/school transport to get to school, and being at School Action Plus; protective factors were increased positive relationships, attending a special school, and higher levels of parental engagement and confidence. Bullying rose according to the number risks to which a child was exposed, and the rise was exponential in the teacher model. Qualitative results allowed an exploration of the experience of bullying and processes contributing to vulnerability, with transition emerging as an additional concern. Implications and directions for future research are discussed in the context of these findings.

This study explores the role of trade unions in intervening in incidents of workplace bullying, adopting an employment relations perspective. The data was obtained from the members and officials of three major UK unions and analysed using both qualitative and quantitative techniques. Between a quarter and a third of respondents in each union considered they were bullied within a two-year period. A key finding was that most bullied individuals voiced their concerns through non-organisational support mechanisms, including trade unions, in preference to the systems created by employers to address bullying. Colleagues rarely offered overt support and union officials typically responded by providing indirect support to individual bullied members. Outcomes tended to place the onus on perceived targets of bullying to resolve the situation irrespective of the source of support utilised. Employers’ attitudes towards bullying appeared to exert greater influence over resolutions. Whilst unions may have limited power to alter managerially-derived solutions, there was some evidence that, where they engendered a collective response to allegations of bullying, perpetrators were more likely to be held accountable. This study makes a significant contribution to the collective knowledge on workplace bullying by proposing a typology of union responses and an industrial relations model of intervention, which highlights the potential for the responses of unions, co-workers, and employers to affect the balance of power in the employment relationship and influence outcomes of work place problems like bullying.

This thesis investigates gendered power relations, including violence, control and coercion, within teenage heterosexual relationships, and broader relationship cultures. It focusses on upper-middle class 14-16 year olds, whose sexualities – unlike those of working-class teenagers – are seldom seen as a social problem. It explores the interactions of romantic and sexual experiences with classed identities and social contexts, based on data generated within a large, high-performing state comprehensive in an affluent, ethnically homogenous (white) area of south-east England. The research, conducted in and outside school, used a mixed-methods approach, incorporating in-depth individual and paired interviews, and self-completion questionnaires. It draws on insights from feminist post-structural approaches to gender and sexualities, and is situated in relation to work that explores the negotiation of gender in “post-feminist” neoliberal societies. Despite (in some ways, because of) their privileged class positioning, these young people faced conflicting regulatory discourses. Heteronormative discourses, and gendered double standards, still shaped their (sexual) subjectivities. Sexuality was very public and visible, forming a claustrophobic regulatory framework restricting movements and choices, particularly girls’. But inequalities and violences were often obscured by powerful classed discourses of compulsory individuality, with young people compelled to perform an autonomous self even as they negotiated inescapably social networks of sexuality. These discourses could exacerbate inequalities, as participants denigrated others for vulnerability. A significant proportion of participants reported controlling, coercive or violent relationship experiences, but girls especially downplayed their importance. Girls shouldered the burden of emotion work, taking on responsibility for both their own and partners’ emotions. Sexual harassment and violence from peers were often regarded with resignation, and sometimes led to further victimisation from partners or peers. Policing of sexuality was bound up with classed prejudices and assumptions; participants’ performances of identity often rested on dissociation from the working class. Young middle-class people’s heterosexual subjectivities sat uneasily with educationally successful, future-oriented subjectivities; sexuality was an ever-lurking threat to becoming an educational and therefore classed success.

Cyberbullying is a relatively recent phenomenon originally coming to the forefront of the public agenda following a number of anecdotal accounts. It has been defined as “any behaviour performed through electronic or digital media by individuals or groups that repeatedly communicates hostile or aggressive messages intended to inflict harm or discomfort on others” (Tokunaga, 2010: 278). This study is designed to explore cyberbullying issues in school settings from the perspective of teaching professionals. This area is of consequence given that research focussing on face-to-face bullying has suggested that teaching professionals and school staff can have differing definitions and understandings of bullying behaviour and the high prevalence of unreported cyberbullying in schools. The participants in this research were Anti-Bullying Co-ordinators in eight schools in one Local Authority. The staff who participated were employed in a range of settings (Primary, Secondary, Middle and High schools). The views of teaching professionals were obtained using semi-structured interviews and the data were analysed using Thematic Analysis (Braun and Clarke, 2006). The results indicate that teaching professionals are beginning to develop an understanding of issues relating to cyberbullying and acknowledge the unique features of this type of behaviour. The findings also highlight that consideration has been given to the level of involvement schools should have when dealing with cyberbullying issues. Furthermore schools are aware of the impact of this type of behaviour and have employed a range of methods to prevent and intervene in cyberbullying. However schools still require additional support to understand how to respond to this phenomenon more comprehensively.

Shame is considered to be a negative emotion which encompasses feelings of inferiority, self-condemnation and the desire to hide from others. It has been associated with psychopathology, including depression, which is a significant and growing concern particularly in young people. Understanding how shame contributes to adolescent depression is therefore important. 0 Previous research with adults indicated that rumination and social rank are important in the relationship between shame and depression. However the small number of studies related to adolescent depression suffered from methodological weaknesses and did not test for mediation. Objectives The present study aimed to elucidate the contexts inwhich adolescents experience shame. Moreover it aimed to investigate whether rumination and social rank (social comparison and submissive behaviour) mediated the relationship between shame and depression in adolescents. Method A cross-sectional, questionnaire-based design was used and data were collected from a community sample of 16 to 18 year-olds (mean age 17.09). Measures of chronic, external and event-specific shame, general and event-specific rumination, social comparison, submissive behaviour and depression were completed by 188 participants (175 females and 13 males). Results The findings suggested that adolescents experienced shame in a variety of contexts including bullying, poor academic achievement and relationship difficulties. Mediation analyses suggested that rumination did not significantly mediate the relationship between shame and depression in adolescents, independently of social 104 nk. social comparison and shame appeared to act in a reciprocal relationship to influence adolescent depression. Shame and submissive behaviour behaved similarly but in adolescents submissive behaviour may be protective. conclusion The findings differed from previous research examining shame, social rank, rumination and depression in adult samples. In the presence of shame, social rank may be more important than rumination during adolescence in relation to depression as an outcome.

Aim The aim of this study was to analyse the impact of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) on the lives of young people and identify factors that promote resilience to mental health difficulties within this population. Methods The study used a mixed methods approach. Results from the analysis of data from a longitudinal population-based birth cohort, the Avon longitudinal Study of Parents and Children {n=6,902) were synthesised with qualitative data from a purposive sample of 11 young people with clinically diagnosed DCD aged 11 to 16 years. Findings from the qualitative study highlighted areas that were important in the lives of the young people interviewed. These areas, such as the importance of friendship groups, bullying and a positive sense of self, were added to the final analytical model as explanatory mediators in the relationship between DCD and mental health difficulties. Findings In total, 123 young people (1.8% of the eligible cohort aged seven years), met all four diagnostic aThis thesis presents research that explored the nature of bullying amongst girls aged 12 to 15 years old in Northern Ireland. The aim of the research was to provide insight into bullying amongst girls of this age through investigating types of female friendships and the impact they may have on the ways in which girls can experience bullying. The roles adopted by girls in relation to bullying are seen from multiple viewpoints of bully, target and bystander. Furthermore, the thesis considers the relatively new phenomenon of ‘cyberbullying’ by exploring how girls use technology such as mobile phones and the Internet in their everyday lives and how this technology offers new and alternative ways to participate in and experience bullying. In order to investigate the participants’ different perceptions and experiences of bullying. Goffman’s theory of social interactions as a performance has been used as an analytical framework. The study sample consisted of 494 questionnaire responses from girls aged 12 to 15 years old across eight schools in Northern Ireland, and eight semi-structured interviews conducted online using instant messenger. A social networking site, Bebo, was used to communicate more widely with possible participants. The study found that the majority of girls have been a target of bullying at some stage with participants reporting experiences involving a diverse range of methods. The findings provide insight regarding the methods girls use to bully and how age is a significant factor regarding the ways in which girls tend to participate in bullying. The study found that over ninety five percent of participants owned a mobile phone and had internet access at home. As these technologies may be used as alternative ways to bully, it is important that adults understand this new area in order to assist girls in their experiences of bullying.
criteria for DCD using strict (5th centile) cut-offs (severe DCD). In addition, 346 young people met wider inclusion criteria (15th centile of a motor test and activity of daily living scales) and were defined as having moderate or severe DCD. These young people with moderate or severe DCD had increased odds of difficulties in attention, short-term memory, social communication, non-verbal skills, reading and spelling. They also had increased odds of self-reported depression, odds ratio: 2.08 (95% confidence interval (Cl) 1.36 to 3.19) and parent reported mental health difficulties, odds ratio: 4.23 (95% Cl 3.10 to 5.77) at age nine to ten years. The young people interviewed did not see themselves as disabled. Factors that increased a positive sense of self were inclusion in friendship groups, information that helped them understand their difficulties and being understood by parents and teachers. These findings were mirrored in the quantitative analysis which showed that the odds of mental health difficulties reduced after accounting for social communication difficulties, bullying, lower verbal intelligence and self-esteem. Conclusions Developmental Coordination Disorder is a common developmental disorder in childhood. The difficulties seen in these young people are complex and assessment needs to be multidisciplinary and consider neurological causes of poor motor coordination, the presence of coexisting developmental difficulties and associated mental health difficulties. Due to the high prevalence of the condition, ongoing one-to-one therapeutic interventions are not feasible. School based interventions, using therapists as trainers, working within a socio-medical model of disability, could work to promote resilience within the individual and improve the acceptance of differences in abilities within the school.

This study focuses upon the relatively unexplored area of sexual harassment in British universities. In sum, the thesis suggests that although MacKinnon’s (2004) aim is to enable women to feel more powerful and less stigmatised, the contribution of feminist harassment discourses may, in part, generate in some women an understanding of powerlessness and vulnerability. In particular, it suggests seemingly prevailing discourses surrounding sexual harassment in higher education and considers if and how the women interviewed define themselves through these discourses. Thus, by exploring the power effects of and resistances to these suggested prevailing discourses, it is possible to infer the degree to which these discourses may have constituted the participants’ subjectivities. Further, the thesis argues that feminist harassment discourses may have generated specific effects of power with regard to my participants. That is to say, many of my participants seem to understand sexual harassment as exploitative behaviours rooted in the unequal distribution of ascribed power in higher education. Feminism’s understanding of power as a static and gendered appears to have generated for the participants, at least in part, the understanding that sex at work is used to humiliate and degrade women, maintaining and reproducing ascribed notions of power. For this research, twenty-four unstructured interviews were carried out with women who had identified themselves as having experienced sexual harassment within higher education, either as a student or a member of staff, or who had witnessed events they had defined as sexual harassment. This was a passionately interested form of inquiry, recognising the partial nature of knowledge and identifying my political positionings (Gill 1995; Aranda 2006). The analysis is Foucauldian oriented, understanding power as fluid – rather than possessed – and as generating particular ways of being. In addition, although it notes that the participants did resists specific effects of power, this resistance always takes place from a new point of power and does not, therefore, carry us beyond power into a power free space. The prevailing discourses suggested from my data are: the ‘grades for sex’ discourse; the ‘all boys together’ discourse; the ‘trustworthy lecturer’ discourse; the ‘knickers in a twist’ discourse; and the ‘sexual harassment as unwanted sexual behaviour’ discourse.

A longitudinal case study of a Central London coeducational secondary school is presented, as an investigation into traditional bullying and cyberbullying problems across three age groups of the student population (Year 7 aged 11 to 12; Year 8 aged 12 to 13; Year 9 aged 13 to 14), collectively entitled Key Stage Three of the National Curriculum. Using repeated measures over a period of four years a total of 983 students aged 11 to 14 (537 male and 434 female) participated in a series of activities taking place during the academic years of 2008/2009 to 2011/2012. Four approaches to mixed methods were applied: a school bullying survey, student worksheets, Quality Circles, and focus groups. Each assessed the nature and extent of the problem in part; the school survey identified the number of bullies, victims, and bully victims, as well as the type of bullying behaviour occurring most often; as part of the school survey, themed worksheets further examined student opinion on legal aspects of cyberbullying, coping skills and school interventions. Quality Circles were introduced as a method of investigating the bullying problems specific to each year group and class. Focus group discussions held as part of Quality Circles work assessed the problems occurring in school. The knowledge gained from this work with students was collated to provide a meaningful interpretation of the survey data (which established the extent of the problem) and the informative materials produced as part of student worksheets, Quality Circles and group discussion (which explained the nature of the problem). This information was used to construct a model of bullying behaviour in the school and establish the most suitable approach to anti-bullying intervention, relevant to the unique needs of this setting and other schools with similar bullying problems.

Ireland has a comprehensive yet complex, statutory framework for the resolution of employment disputes. Various bodies offer conciliation, mediation, arbitration and regulation, however the processes are taking too long. The focus of this dissertation is on another form of dispute resolution – collaborative law and its suitability to the resolution of Irish employment disputes. The overarching question of this research is: Can a dispute resolution model based on collaborative practice be a useful addition to alternative dispute resolution in Irish employment law? A review of ADR and employment literature provides a context for this research. The first phase of the primary research consisted of a survey of collaborative practitioners in Ireland to identify the current usage and success of collaborative law and whether practitioners felt collaborative law was suitable for the resolution of Irish employment disputes. The second phase entailed depth interviews with key employment stakeholders to verify the findings from phase A. Analysis of the findings indicate that collaborative law could be a successful method of dispute resolution and that practitioners feel it is an appropriate method of dispute resolution for employment disputes.

Cyberbullying has been defined as “an aggressive, intentional act carried out by a group or individual, using electronic forms of contact, repeatedly and over time against a victim who cannot easily defend him or herself” (Smith, Mahdavi, Carvalho, Fisher, Russell & Tippett, 2008, p. 376). The aim of this research was to investigate cyberbullying in Irish secondary schools in relation to personality and self-concept. A sample of 876 students (n = 534 male: 61%; n = 342 female: 39%) aged between 12 and 16 participated in the research. Respondents completed a Cyberbullying Questionnaire, the Jr. Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975), and the Piers-Harris 2 (Piers & Herzberg, 2002). A total of 6.3% reported cyber victimization during the previous three months. Analysis of the Jr. EPQ indicated that victims of cyberbullying and victims of traditional bullying displayed significantly higher (P<.05) Neuroticism levels compared with non-involved students (i.e., those uninvolved either as bullies or victims). The cyber and traditional victims displayed similar patterns across personality and self-concept. Findings are examined in the context of the existing literature.

The transition to secondary school can be a period of excitement and apprehension for all children; however increased anxiety surrounding change can make periods of transition challenging for children with an autistic spectrum condition (ASC) and can affect their ability to adapt to the new social and physical environment. This study explored the experiences of eight children with ASC during the transition to secondary school. Children were interviewed towards the end of the summer term at primary school and during the first term at secondary school. Children’s drawings and models were used to facilitate the interview process and as a focus for discussion. Findings suggest that some of the aspects of transition experienced by children with ASC are common to all children moving from primary to secondary school, such as familiarisation with the school environment, social relationships, fear of bullying, looking forward to new subjects and people, and new opportunities. However, some of the children in this study experienced heightened anxiety, particularly pre-transition when they were uncertain what to expect, how other children would react to them, who they should make friends with and what they would do if they had difficulty managing their emotions. Induction visits successfully addressed some of these issues however most children still experienced uncertainty about some aspects of secondary school. In contrast, familiarity with the new environment and a greater degree of predictability about the structure of the school day in addition to knowing school staff and making new friends contributed to children’s positive emotions about school. There were some aspects of transition that children felt could be improved such as preparation, peer support, preventative support from teachers and the opportunity to talk about transition and social and emotional issues. Findings emphasise the importance of adequate preparation and individualised planning involving children in the process.

There is significant research into childhood bullying and associated psychosocial difficulties in childhood. In contrast, research into the impact of childhood bullying in adulthood is sparse and predominantly quantitative. This study addresses this gap by exploring the lived experience of adults who were bullied as children. Semi-structured interviews were conducted and the data was analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Participants were six women and two men, aged between 27 and 57 years of age, who experienced bullying during their childhood and adolescent years. Four superordinate themes emerged from the interviews: “The impact on the self’, “Interpersonal relationships”, “The struggle for control, power and autonomy” and “Making sense of childhood bullying experiences in adulthood”. This study’s findings have been placed in wider context to existing literature. This study has also adopted an integrative theoretical framework for the interpretation of the findings in order to understand the mechanisms and processes involved in the experiences reported by participants. Therefore, suggestions can be made for psychological interventions and therapeutic exploration in clinical work with adult clients who experienced childhood bullying. The theoretical approaches used were developmental life span, humanistic, psychodynamic and cognitive-behavioural. Clinical implications, such as control relating to coping strategies and the potential for post-traumatic stress in adults who experienced childhood bullying, are also explored. Limitations of the study and recommendations for future research are discussed.

This thesis aimed to examine the functional relationship between adolescent bullying victimisation and alcohol-misuse using two comorbidity models: a causal model and a common underlying mechanism model. This research had 4 main aims: 1) to investigate the risk conferred by adolescent bullying victimisation on alcohol-misuse, focusing on the role of coping-drinking motives; 2) to understand the risk conferred for victimisation from neurotic personality traits previously implicated in alcohol-misuse, whilst focusing on the role of emotional symptoms; 3) to compare the behavioural and neurological emotional vigilance of adolescents who have either experienced bullying victimisation or a severe trauma to non-victimised participants; 4) to investigate the effect over 18-months of personality-targeted coping-skills interventions on reducing victimisation, coping-drinking motives and alcohol-related problems in victims with high levels of neurotic personality traits. These objectives were addressed using data from three independent studies: The Preventure and Adventure studies which administered personality-targeted interventions for adolescents (aged 13-16 years) and the IMAGEN study. Evidence was provided for both comorbidity models. A causal comorbidity model was supported with results showing that bullying victimisation predicted future alcohol-misuse, a relationship mediated by coping-drinking motives. Two neurotic personality domains, which have been previously implicated in alcohol-misuse, predicted risk for victimisation, mediated by the development of emotional symptoms, therefore supporting a common mechanism model of comorbidity. Victims displayed a hypervigilance for fearful face stimuli, which was similar to trauma-exposed adolescents. A combined-victim group with a high level of emotional impact showed increased brain activation for angry and ambiguous faces. Within this group, emotional symptoms were positively associated with increased neural response to angry and ambiguous faces in areas including the anterior cingulate cortex. Finally, results suggest that personality-targeted interventions can reduce victimisation and increase positive coping strategies, in addition to reducing coping-drinking motives and alcohol-related problems specifically for victims of bullying.

The purpose of this research was to investigate the perceptions of refugee children, refugee parents and school staff regarding what they believe contributed to the positive adaptation of refugee children after facing adversity. This research examined how the participants understood the factors inherent in the new social milieu and its effect on refugee children’s mental health and psychological well-being. This included an exploration of resilience and the role of risk and protective factors. Few studies have focused on exploring views from a resilience perspective and studies that have, have also tended to focus on exploring factors through quantitative rather than qualitative measures. This mixed methods piece of ‘real world’ research, adopted a ‘what’s working well’ perspective, aimed to explore the important voices of children, parents and staff. The views of three refugee parents and twenty one refugee children aged between 9 and 19 years old, of various ethnic origins and length of stay in the UK (six months to eight years) were explored through semi-structured interviews. Data were analysed using a thematic analysis approach. The children’s level of well-being in different domains such as school was assessed using the Multidimensional Student Life Satisfaction Survey (Huebner, 2001). The views of sixty-three staff members were also gathered via questionnaire. Findings from this research reveal the valuable perspectives parents and young people can offer. The psychological construct of resilience was of relevance to the children in the present research, with several themes reflecting factors that have been shown to impact on resilience in positive or adverse way. Young people’s comments suggested that they were not protected from all negative experiences, but were able to succeed in the face of such adversity due to a number of factors that provided a defence against it. The key differences that children identified, that could be protective as well as a risk for them featured in the following main themes: factors within the family, experiences at school and individual/personal characteristics. Staff, parent and child responses were triangulated to provide a rich picture of the potential protective factors operating within the school and family environment. Implications for future practice for schools and Educational Psychologists in areas such as the voice of the child, bullying, home-school and community partnerships and mental health interventions are discussed. Methodological issues are also considered, together with suggestions for future research to create a deeper understanding of the role of culture, schools, coping styles and the community. Further opportunities for research exploring risk and resilience in unaccompanied refugee children are suggested.