Ireland has a comprehensive yet complex, statutory framework for the resolution of employment disputes. Various bodies offer conciliation, mediation, arbitration and regulation, however the processes are taking too long. The focus of this dissertation is on another form of dispute resolution – collaborative law and its suitability to the resolution of Irish employment disputes. The overarching question of this research is: Can a dispute resolution model based on collaborative practice be a useful addition to alternative dispute resolution in Irish employment law? A review of ADR and employment literature provides a context for this research. The first phase of the primary research consisted of a survey of collaborative practitioners in Ireland to identify the current usage and success of collaborative law and whether practitioners felt collaborative law was suitable for the resolution of Irish employment disputes. The second phase entailed depth interviews with key employment stakeholders to verify the findings from phase A. Analysis of the findings indicate that collaborative law could be a successful method of dispute resolution and that practitioners feel it is an appropriate method of dispute resolution for employment disputes.

Cyberbullying has been defined as “an aggressive, intentional act carried out by a group or individual, using electronic forms of contact, repeatedly and over time against a victim who cannot easily defend him or herself” (Smith, Mahdavi, Carvalho, Fisher, Russell & Tippett, 2008, p. 376). The aim of this research was to investigate cyberbullying in Irish secondary schools in relation to personality and self-concept. A sample of 876 students (n = 534 male: 61%; n = 342 female: 39%) aged between 12 and 16 participated in the research. Respondents completed a Cyberbullying Questionnaire, the Jr. Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975), and the Piers-Harris 2 (Piers & Herzberg, 2002). A total of 6.3% reported cyber victimization during the previous three months. Analysis of the Jr. EPQ indicated that victims of cyberbullying and victims of traditional bullying displayed significantly higher (P<.05) Neuroticism levels compared with non-involved students (i.e., those uninvolved either as bullies or victims). The cyber and traditional victims displayed similar patterns across personality and self-concept. Findings are examined in the context of the existing literature.

The transition to secondary school can be a period of excitement and apprehension for all children; however increased anxiety surrounding change can make periods of transition challenging for children with an autistic spectrum condition (ASC) and can affect their ability to adapt to the new social and physical environment. This study explored the experiences of eight children with ASC during the transition to secondary school. Children were interviewed towards the end of the summer term at primary school and during the first term at secondary school. Children’s drawings and models were used to facilitate the interview process and as a focus for discussion. Findings suggest that some of the aspects of transition experienced by children with ASC are common to all children moving from primary to secondary school, such as familiarisation with the school environment, social relationships, fear of bullying, looking forward to new subjects and people, and new opportunities. However, some of the children in this study experienced heightened anxiety, particularly pre-transition when they were uncertain what to expect, how other children would react to them, who they should make friends with and what they would do if they had difficulty managing their emotions. Induction visits successfully addressed some of these issues however most children still experienced uncertainty about some aspects of secondary school. In contrast, familiarity with the new environment and a greater degree of predictability about the structure of the school day in addition to knowing school staff and making new friends contributed to children’s positive emotions about school. There were some aspects of transition that children felt could be improved such as preparation, peer support, preventative support from teachers and the opportunity to talk about transition and social and emotional issues. Findings emphasise the importance of adequate preparation and individualised planning involving children in the process.

There is significant research into childhood bullying and associated psychosocial difficulties in childhood. In contrast, research into the impact of childhood bullying in adulthood is sparse and predominantly quantitative. This study addresses this gap by exploring the lived experience of adults who were bullied as children. Semi-structured interviews were conducted and the data was analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Participants were six women and two men, aged between 27 and 57 years of age, who experienced bullying during their childhood and adolescent years. Four superordinate themes emerged from the interviews: “The impact on the self’, “Interpersonal relationships”, “The struggle for control, power and autonomy” and “Making sense of childhood bullying experiences in adulthood”. This study’s findings have been placed in wider context to existing literature. This study has also adopted an integrative theoretical framework for the interpretation of the findings in order to understand the mechanisms and processes involved in the experiences reported by participants. Therefore, suggestions can be made for psychological interventions and therapeutic exploration in clinical work with adult clients who experienced childhood bullying. The theoretical approaches used were developmental life span, humanistic, psychodynamic and cognitive-behavioural. Clinical implications, such as control relating to coping strategies and the potential for post-traumatic stress in adults who experienced childhood bullying, are also explored. Limitations of the study and recommendations for future research are discussed.

This thesis aimed to examine the functional relationship between adolescent bullying victimisation and alcohol-misuse using two comorbidity models: a causal model and a common underlying mechanism model. This research had 4 main aims: 1) to investigate the risk conferred by adolescent bullying victimisation on alcohol-misuse, focusing on the role of coping-drinking motives; 2) to understand the risk conferred for victimisation from neurotic personality traits previously implicated in alcohol-misuse, whilst focusing on the role of emotional symptoms; 3) to compare the behavioural and neurological emotional vigilance of adolescents who have either experienced bullying victimisation or a severe trauma to non-victimised participants; 4) to investigate the effect over 18-months of personality-targeted coping-skills interventions on reducing victimisation, coping-drinking motives and alcohol-related problems in victims with high levels of neurotic personality traits. These objectives were addressed using data from three independent studies: The Preventure and Adventure studies which administered personality-targeted interventions for adolescents (aged 13-16 years) and the IMAGEN study. Evidence was provided for both comorbidity models. A causal comorbidity model was supported with results showing that bullying victimisation predicted future alcohol-misuse, a relationship mediated by coping-drinking motives. Two neurotic personality domains, which have been previously implicated in alcohol-misuse, predicted risk for victimisation, mediated by the development of emotional symptoms, therefore supporting a common mechanism model of comorbidity. Victims displayed a hypervigilance for fearful face stimuli, which was similar to trauma-exposed adolescents. A combined-victim group with a high level of emotional impact showed increased brain activation for angry and ambiguous faces. Within this group, emotional symptoms were positively associated with increased neural response to angry and ambiguous faces in areas including the anterior cingulate cortex. Finally, results suggest that personality-targeted interventions can reduce victimisation and increase positive coping strategies, in addition to reducing coping-drinking motives and alcohol-related problems specifically for victims of bullying.

The purpose of this research was to investigate the perceptions of refugee children, refugee parents and school staff regarding what they believe contributed to the positive adaptation of refugee children after facing adversity. This research examined how the participants understood the factors inherent in the new social milieu and its effect on refugee children’s mental health and psychological well-being. This included an exploration of resilience and the role of risk and protective factors. Few studies have focused on exploring views from a resilience perspective and studies that have, have also tended to focus on exploring factors through quantitative rather than qualitative measures. This mixed methods piece of ‘real world’ research, adopted a ‘what’s working well’ perspective, aimed to explore the important voices of children, parents and staff. The views of three refugee parents and twenty one refugee children aged between 9 and 19 years old, of various ethnic origins and length of stay in the UK (six months to eight years) were explored through semi-structured interviews. Data were analysed using a thematic analysis approach. The children’s level of well-being in different domains such as school was assessed using the Multidimensional Student Life Satisfaction Survey (Huebner, 2001). The views of sixty-three staff members were also gathered via questionnaire. Findings from this research reveal the valuable perspectives parents and young people can offer. The psychological construct of resilience was of relevance to the children in the present research, with several themes reflecting factors that have been shown to impact on resilience in positive or adverse way. Young people’s comments suggested that they were not protected from all negative experiences, but were able to succeed in the face of such adversity due to a number of factors that provided a defence against it. The key differences that children identified, that could be protective as well as a risk for them featured in the following main themes: factors within the family, experiences at school and individual/personal characteristics. Staff, parent and child responses were triangulated to provide a rich picture of the potential protective factors operating within the school and family environment. Implications for future practice for schools and Educational Psychologists in areas such as the voice of the child, bullying, home-school and community partnerships and mental health interventions are discussed. Methodological issues are also considered, together with suggestions for future research to create a deeper understanding of the role of culture, schools, coping styles and the community. Further opportunities for research exploring risk and resilience in unaccompanied refugee children are suggested.

The aim of this research is to examine, from children’s perspectives, where bullying exists in their everyday experiences of school. A Foucauldian perspective is used to conceptualise bullying and perceives it as involving power which is fluid and involves struggles between individuals. Different modalities of bullying are examined (between pupils, between teachers and pupils and systemic bullying). This research also investigates different severities of bullying from clear to ‘grey’; and different perspectives and feelings children have. Traditional definitions are challenged which distinguish bullying as a specific form of aggression, experienced by a minority of people. Observations, focus groups and individual interviews were conducted with children in five state schools, a private school and a pupil referral unit, 84 children in total were interviewed. This research found that although most children experienced characteristics of bullying such as name-calling and humiliation, which often caused them distress, few children considered it as bullying and no-one referred to themselves as a bully. Teachers were subject to powers of normalisation and panopticism where they were under surveillance to ensure children conformed to education norms. Although bullying was found to be multi-causal, a particular finding in this thesis is the role played by boredom. Working-class boys with learning difficulties were particularly under ‘the gaze’ and increasingly targeted for punishment, which usually increased their boredom. Some of these children wanted revenge and engaged in bullying. Because they often felt increasingly targeted for punishment, they also experienced bullying by teachers and systemic bullying. Another reason children bully is to be popular and exercise social power over others. This research is an original contribution to knowledge because of its complex and multi-faceted understanding of bullying. These findings have wider resonance and are likely to apply where these processes occur, for example, in other schools.

Peer support approaches, where pupils offer formal support to others, are used in schools as an additional source of pastoral care. Previous research shows benefits for whole school environments, pupils who receive support, and pupil peer supporters, but is largely limited to Western case studies, which are often short-term and/or limited to qualitative data. This thesis addresses these issues through cross-national work on peer support use, and longitudinal case studies. Peer support use in Japan was investigated through a qualitative study. A range of approaches was seen and major themes identified, including the evolution of Japanese peer support, conflicts in approaches, and an emphasis upon community. A qualitative study in South Korea explored peer support and other anti-bullying initiatives, both proactive and reactive. Thematic analysis showed the importance of collectivist values, and a gap between policy and practice. Peer support was little used and, despite positive attitudes, barriers were perceived. A comparison of the UK, Japan and South Korea considered the impact of cultural values, education systems and the nature of bullying upon peer support use. Two mixed methodology case studies of peer listening schemes in UK secondary schools were conducted, one over 18 months and another over six months. Both schemes had the general aim of providing additional pupil support, without focus on particular outcomes. Impact upon the domains typically benefited by peer support was evaluated; findings were broadly similar. Pupil awareness of the service was high, but in-depth knowledge was weaker and use was low. Attitudes were mixed, impact upon bullying and school climate was limited, but users and peer supporters perceived benefits. Both schemes evolved to include multiple approaches, and practical factors affecting development and effectiveness were identified. Finally, implications for peer support practice are drawn from the findings as a whole, and future research directions suggested.

Intersectionality is a much-debated concept within gender and race studies, but there are few empirical studies that operationalise the concept in examining work organisations and occupational careers. This thesis applies an intersectional analysis to a study of the UK construction and transport sectors exploring how gender, sexuality and occupational class shape women’s work experiences. Sexuality is one of the least explored intersections, in particular its interaction with class; additionally the thesis addresses gaps in research evidence concerning the experience of women in non-professional occupations in construction and transport. In seeking to avoid prioritising either structure or agency, the research employs a multilevel framework (Layder, 1993) that addresses several dimensions of women’s experience of male-dominated work: the current policy context; women’s choices and identifications in relation to traditionally male occupations; gendered, sexualised and classed workplace interactions; participation in separate support networks and trade union structures; and the interaction of domestic circumstances with work participation. The multi-strategy qualitative methodology includes 50 interviews with key experts and heterosexual and lesbian women working in professional/managerial and nonprofessional occupations in the construction and transport sectors, plus two focus groups with women workers in construction and observation of events to raise awareness of non-traditional work. This intersectional approach permits consideration of both advantage and disadvantage and questions cumulative conceptions that presume, for example, that gender and sexuality compound to disadvantage lesbians at work. The contribution of this thesis is to reveal the circumstances in which sexuality, occupational class or gender is most salient in shaping work identity or experience, together with the ways they interact. Thus sexualised workplace interactions could at times be avoided by open lesbians, but all women were at risk of sexual or homophobic harassment, although it was more prevalent in the workplaces of non-professional women. Interviewees also highlighted benefits of male-dominated occupations, including increased gendered self-confidence from doing ‘men’s work’, and material pay advantages, particularly for nonprofessionals, which in some cases produced a shift in the domestic division of labour within households.

Few studies have focused on the perspectives of children with ‘learning difficulty’ labels in the UK. This exploratory study aimed to investigate the experience of children in a mainstream primary school in London who had been identified as having ‘learning difficulties’. Six children were observed in their school environment, interviewed using props and pictures, and invited to take photos of significant features of their daily lives. Data were transcribed and analysed thematically from a critical realist standpoint. The children in the study were mostly not remarkable from other children, either in their appearance or behaviour, or in their experiences and views. They had a variety of understandings and feelings about the additional support they received, but largely seemed fairly neutral about it and did not seem to feel particularly different from their peers. In contrast with much of the literature, stories of stigma and bullying were not found. This seemed to reflect an inclusive school culture. Some of the children were however noticeably socially isolated from their peers. Teaching assistants played a key role in several children’s lives, and this was largely positive, although their role sometimes constrained opportunities for peer interactions and autonomy. Although the sample was not representative of children with ‘learning difficulties’, the findings point to the possibility that schools can create an environment whereby children with different learning abilities or styles do not experience ‘impairment’ (difficulties with learning) or ‘disability’ (barriers to opportunities). This may only apply to children with milder differences from supportive families, but is consistent with theory that both impairment and disability are socially constructed. Further research is needed into how schools can create such an environment, as well as into barriers to friendships for children with ‘learning difficulty’ labels.

Aims: This study aims to explore how a local mainstream secondary school can adapt their current self-referral peer support service in order to increase its use by vulnerable Year 7 pupils, including those that experience bullying. Method: An action research methodology incorporating multiple methods of data collection was employed as a framework to support the division and implementation of an electronic peer support scheme. Qualitative methods were employed to investigate the barriers to reporting bullying and using the peer support schemes in this school. This data was used to plan adaptations to the school’s current peer support schemes. Results: The study evolved over three action research cycles, with the results from each cycle informing the general action plan for the next. Reflective discussions with participants supported the development of this research study. The division and subsequent implementation of an electronic peer support scheme was accessed by pupils during a four-month period and evaluated positively by a group of Year 7 pupils. However, no pupils out of the Year 7 cohort (N = 257) accessed either the new electronic scheme or the existing face-to-face peer support scheme when they were available over the autumn term of 2010. Despite this, the levels of bullying being experienced by pupils remained the same. Focus group discussions revealed a number of barriers to reporting bullying and increasing the anonymity of the victim, when reporting was the most important way of overcoming the problem of under-reporting. The barriers to accessing peer support, as well as ways of overcoming them, were identified. Suggestions were made to inform an action plan that would contribute to overcoming problems with the scheme. The results are discussed in relation to existing literature and reflections are made in relation to the action research methodology. The study concludes with a discussion of the implications for future research and practice.

This thesis is an ethnographic study of intercultural education discourses and everyday practices in an urban Greek-Cypriot primary school. The pupil population is comprised of Greek-Cypriots, Eastern European economic migrants and increasing numbers of newlyarrived Iraqi-Palestinian asylum-seekers. Despite the introduction of intercultural education policy in 2001, the education system prescribes a monoculturalist and nationalist ethos. At the same time, the limited opportunities for intercultural education training leave teachers uncertain as to how to respond to the increasing diversity. Informed by ethnographic, discursive and intersectional approaches, this study analyses data from fieldwork conducted in this school for a total of three months over a period of three years. The analysis identifies the discursive resources from which teachers draw to talk about diversity in Greek-Cypriot society and construct the Other, mainly in essentialist and negative ways. It also identifies teachers’ constructions of racism on a societal and educational level, including racism denials, minimizations and justifications. The thesis argues that teachers’ constructions of racism inhibit them from recognizing and challenging institutional racism and racialized incidents they observe among their pupils. The study also demonstrates how minoritized children become differentially racialized as groups and individuals through institutional, teachers’ and children’s discourses and practices, regardless of intentionality. As a result, many minoritized children experience school in an environment of harassment. The study discusses the experiences of an Iraqi-Palestinian boy as an example of how intercultural education is implemented. Some teachers’ resistance to the dominant discourses of colourblindness and racism denial, and minoritized children’s negotiation of their racialized positionings create the spaces of ambivalence that are necessary for change. The findings bear implications for policy and practice in terms of teacher training, development of antiracist policies and supportive networks for teachers, changes in the curriculum, and, structural transformations, so that educational opportunities are equally provided to all children.

This research examines in-depth the experience and dynamics of workplace bullying across five major academic teaching hospitals and how employees come to provide meanings to bullying behaviour.  I explore the important role that emotions play in examining the perception of bullying in employees’ work environment, including during processes of organisational change. The research goes beyond individual analysis and focuses on the social context of employees in the work environment.  This provides a significant theoretical approach to the studying of bullying behaviour. In examining bullying behaviour, I have drawn mainly on three theorists, Thomas Scheff (1990, 1991, 1994, 1997), Theodore Kemper (1978, 1979, 1987), and Erving Goffman (1959, 1960, 1961, 1990).  I also draw on the work of other symbolic interactionists such as Blumer (1969) and Mead (1934), among others. The study was conducted using a mixed method-approach incorporating quantitative analysis and in-depth interviews.  In addition to gathering survey data from seven hundred and thirty-one respondents, nineteen respondents were interviewed to explore in closer detail their perception of bullying and its impact, as well as various individual and organisational factors that may have influence on the bullying behaviour. This research has provided important insights to the micro world of employees, and the usefulness of emotions in examining bullying in the workplace. Results showed a considerable amount of individuals who admitted to being bullied.  Verbal bullying behaviour was the most frequent form of bullying reported. In addition, it demonstrated an alarming number who witnessed bullying behaviour (70.6%).  Both research methods not only gave a wide range of accounts of bullying, it also included the methods respondents took in order to deal with bullying behaviour. In addition, the effects of bullying behaviour on employees and their colleagues were also explored.  The results clearly indicated considerable emotional distress to those who reported they were bullied.

The purpose of this thesis was to develop a model that predicts therapy outcome for children and adolescents who stutter, taking the independent variables of initial stuttering severity, self-esteem, anxiety, the psychosocial impact of stuttering, bullying, motor abilities and language abilities into account. In order to address these issues, three new instruments were developed and validated: (1) the Speech Questionnaire to assess the psychosocial impact of stuttering on the child’s life; (2) the Bullying Questionnaire to obtain information about stuttering related bullying; and (3) the MAMS Orofacial Assessment to assess orofacial abilities. Correlations between therapy outcome and the factors initial stuttering severity, language abilities, and orofacial abilities were found. These factors were used to design a predictive model. Relations of the findings to existing models are outlined. The knowledge obtained about the factors that influence therapy outcome may allow clinicians to tailor therapy programs individually towards the needs of the children. To obtain more information about the daily experiences of children who stutter during an intensive treatment a fourth questionnaire, the Daily Questionnaire was developed and validated. Results of a study with 19 participants during a three-week intensive treatment showed a significant relationship between the impact of other people on the previous day and the experience of general speaking abilities of the subsequent day. Furthermore, a correlation between emotions on the previous day and experience of own speaking abilities on the current day was found. Outcomes of the studies presented in relation to existing models are discussed and a new multi-factor model is presented.