Studies which examine conflict have identified coping strategies as potent variables for the social competencies of children. To extend these ideas to more specific indicators of social adjustment this study examined emotional impairments and coping strategies of victims and bullies. Inventories measuring emotional impairment: depression, anger, anxiety and self-concept were completed by 103 primary school children aged 9-11. A questionnaire measured five coping strategies: problem solving, social support seeking, distancing, externalising and internalising. Bully and victim nominations identified almost 5 times as many male bullies compared to girls therefore findings which specifically relate to bullying refer to boys only. Emotional impairments were identified as predictory variables for bullying and victimisation particularly for boys where anger was identified as moderating the relationship between externalising and bullying behaviour while anxiety was identified as a mediating variable between problem solving and victimisation. Findings here also suggest that all children learn how to cope with negative emotions through their experiences with adults. For bullies internalisation as a result of poor experiences during problem solving with adults makes problem solving with peers less likely.

This study examines the relationship between the personality construct empathy and two forms of antisocial behaviour, namely self-reported offending and school bullying. This study reviews the empirical evidence for the widely held theoretical belief that low empathy is related to antisocial behaviour by undertaking a systematic review and meta-analysis. In order to develop a better understanding of the relationship between empathy and different forms of antisocial behaviour, an anonymous questionnaire was administered to a group of 720 Year 10 students in England. Information about empathy, self-reported offending and bullying was collected. Information about additional factors, which previous research has found to be related to both offending and bullying (such as impulsivity, parental supervision and low socioeconomic status), was also collected. The key question for the offending component of this study was: was low empathy related to self-reported offending? Furthermore, if differences were found to exist, were they independent of the associations between offending and the other variables which previous research has established to be related to offending? The results suggest that empathy was associated with some forms of self-reported offending, but not others. The association between empathy and offending also differed for males and females, and also the frequency of offending. The implications for interventions to reduce offending are discussed. Although similar to offending in some respects, bullying in school is a different form of antisocial behaviour. The key question of the bullying component of this study was: was low empathy related to bullying others? Also, if differences were found to exist, were they independent of the associations between bullying and the other variables which previous research has established to be related to bullying? The results suggest that empathy was related to bullying for females and for more serious bullying among males. Differences also existed for different types of bullying. The implications of these findings for the development of strategies to address bullying behaviour are discussed.

Objective: Eating disordered populations have been consistently found to demonstrate high levels of shame. However, the factors contributing to this had not previously been established. This study explored the main sources of shame in 52 individuals with a current diagnosis of an eating disorder. Method: All participants completed questionnaires on eating disorders, negative affect, perceived parental bonding, Social Isolation schema (Young & Brown, 1990) and bodily, behavioural and characterological shame and shame around eating. They were also asked to indicate if they had experienced bullying/teasing in their past. An individual meeting the criteria for anorexia nervosa and an individual with bulimia nervosa were randomly selected to participate in a semi-structured interview to obtain more in depth information about their experience of shame and eating disorders. Results: Pearson correlations and partial correlations were used to identify appropriate factors to be entered into the regression model. Stepwise linear regression analyses indicated that maternal care, Social Isolation schema and current eating disorders symptomatology were significant predictors of shame, explaining 50% of the variance. Social Isolation schema was found to be the major contributor to this model. Depression was also entered into the model but was not found to make a significant independent contribution. The link between bullying/teasing and Social Isolation schema was also supported. Conclusions: The study adds further insight into the relationship between shame and eating disorders by identifying factors involved in the development of shame in this population. Results highlight the role of both early experiences and current symptoms, suggesting that shame has an important role in both the development and maintenance of eating disorders. Implications for treatment are discussed, as are suggested areas of future research. In particular, the need to consider bullying/teasing in shame and eating disorders research is emphasised.

Background: Attachment relationships have long been recognised as fundamental to the development of peer relations and mental health in adolescence.  A growing body of literature has recently highlighted the importance of attachment relationships in an individual’s subsequent involvement in bullying. There has however, been very little research into boarding school pupils, despite the fact that the attachment relationships of this population are likely to be affected by the separation of these children from their families. Aims: to investigate the relationship between peer and parental attachment relationships, bullying and mental health in boarding school pupils. Participants: 476 parents and 196 pupils between the ages of 13 and 16 at single sex and co-educational boarding schools in the southeast of England. Design: A cross-sectional, between subjects design in which main and interaction effects of boarding and parental and peer attachments were explored in relation to bullying behaviour and emotional and behavioural strengths and difficulties. Measures: parents and pupils completed their respective versions of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (a measure of children’s emotional and behavioural functioning). Pupils also completed the Olweus Bully / Victimisation Scale and the Inventory of Parental and Peer Attachment. Results: Contrary to predictions boarders report stranger attachments to their mothers than day pupils.  No differences were observed between the paternal and peer attachments of day and boarding pupils.  Boarding pupils also report higher rates of victimisation than day pupils.  Security of attachment to parents and peers was related to many aspects of adolescent mental health and bullying behaviour.  This was particularly true of boarding pupils’ peer attachments. Conclusions: Based on the study’s results it is essential that schools are aware of the particular importance of developing positive peer relationships for boarding pupils.  Interventions designed to limit victimisation in boarding schools should take this into account and tailor preventative strategies to meet the specific needs of day and boarding pupils.

This document describes the motivations and processes behind my writing the handbook, Dignity at Work:  Eliminate Bullying and Create a Positive Working Environment.  It also contains the typescript as submitted to Routledge, the publishers (Appendix D).  Dignity at Work was written for commercial publication but it was shaped primarily by considerations related to its being a doctoral project.  The book was designed to be a practical and user-friendly manual for both psychological practitioners in organisations as well as anyone else in an organisational setting who has the responsibility of managing others.  Dignity at Work is based on a systematic enquiry of colleagues and others involved in workplace bullying and it draws on the discipline and knowledge of the counselling, psychotherapy and psychology fields and their contribution to understanding and working with individuals and groups. The book does not aim to supersede existing research but in fact relies on the valuable work done in the field:  material I had collected over the years by reviewing the literature, talking to colleagues, and integrating my own experience.  The result is a work that seeks to provide the best response to enhancing dignity at work from the perspectives of not only the victims and their employers, but also the counsellors and psychologists who are called in to provide effective intervention.

This thesis is concerned with perceptions of bullying.  It examines the constructs associated with the social representation of bullying within the police service, and the social psychological processes and factors influencing the likelihood that individual officers will share such representations.  The work is framed within the social psychological theories of Social Identity Theory (SIT) (Tajfel & Turner, 1986) and Social Representations Theory (SRT) (Moscovici, 1961, 1984). The research comprised two studies.  Study one used an innovative twist on the qualitative multiple sort procedure to establish the constructs of bullying used within the police service.  Seventeen participants drawn from civilian support staff, uniformed and CID officers used themes based on issues of context, power and the type of behaviour (personal or task directed) in their evaluations of bullying.  Departmental differences were noted in the interpretational strategies used. Study two was designed to ascertain the relative importance of the constructs, identified by study one, to the constabulary’s SR of bullying and the degree to which differences in sharing such SRs could be explained by identification factors.  The manipulation scenario, which formed part of the questionnaire design, provided support for the effect of type of behaviour on the SR factor of acceptability and common-ness, but he construct of power, as represented by rank and authority, produced a more complex result, with an interaction occurring between the two.  There were significant differences between high and low identifiers and department in the degree to which respondents concurred with the constabulary’s SR of bullying.

Bullying in schools is an international problem.  Whilst quite a lot is known about the nature, incidence and correlates of involvement in bully/victim problems from a cross-national perspective, practically nothing is known about this social phenomena within the Northern Ireland school system.  To address this vacuum, the current research program had two major aims.  The first of these aims was to explore the incidence of bully/victim problems among samples of primary and post-primary school pupils from a multiple-indicator approach.  The second of these aims was the exploration of various health and well-being and individual difference correlates of involvement in bully/victim problems among these pupils.  To facilitate this research, an audit of all schools in Northern Ireland was conducted to explore the wider ecological context in which bully/victim problems operate, and to serve as a method of recruiting schools into the main research program.  The audit study focused on a variety of issues, including the implementation and communication of anti-bullying policies and programs, workplace and homophobic bullying.  From an initial population of 1,233 schools, 285 provided valid responses (response rate of 23.11%).  The results of the audit study highlighted that in the absence of a legislative framework regarding bully/victim problems, Principals in the Northern Ireland school system, have worked in a proactive manner regarding the management of such problems.  A total of 7,061 pupils in attendance at 70 primary and post-primary schools participated in a number of studies exploring involvement in bully/victim problems and associated health and well-being and individual difference correlates.  With respect to the first major aim, it was found that a significant minority of pupils were directly involved in bully/victim problems as either a bully, a victim or as a bystander.  With respect to the second major aim, it was found that involvement in such problems was significantly associated with impaired levels of health and well-being.  Moreover, the importance of a number of individual difference variables in understanding actor sub-group involvement in bully/victim problems were found.  The findings of the research program were interpreted in relation to previous literatures.  Methodological strengths and weaknesses were discussed, and directions for future research suggested.

The study was an exploration of differences in Theory of Mind (ToM) and empathy among students involved in bullying in 5th and 6th class in primary school, and consisted of both a quantitative and qualitative component.  In the quantitative study, 552 student participated and each student completed a questionnaire detailing their involvement in bullying and the nature of the bullying they experienced, witnessed or carried out.  They also completed a measure of verbal intelligence, a ToM measure, a trait measure of empathy and a Person-Specific measure of empathy.  A pilot study, with 104 students, looked at the psychometric properties and suitability of the above measures.  Results from the quantitative study found no significant differences among groups for Total ToM score.  Female students had significantly higher Total ToM scores than male students.  Some significant differences were found on the ToM Cognition Subscale for the Bully/Victim status group.  No Person-Specific empathy differences were found for any status group.  In the qualitative study 30 students took part in four focus groups, where they were asked their views on how ToM and empathy relate to involvement in bullying behaviour.  The qualitative findings suggest that students believe that both ToM and empathy skills are important variables in relation to involvement in bullying behaviour but that the influence of both of these variables can be overridden depending on many factors in the bullying situation.  Although results do not support the ToM model for understanding bullying, before this model can be rejected completely, problems of measurement need to be addressed.  Likewise, before the Social-Cognitive Information-Processing model can be taken as a model for understanding bullying, all steps in this model need to be tested in relation to students who are involved in bullying.  The model cannot be generalised from research on aggressive children.  Future research needs to continue to explore all the status groups, especially the Bully/Victim status group and to look at how ToM and empathy relate to each other.

Over the past decade sexual harassment has become a focus of international research. Although educational studies have shown that it is common in secondary schools, there is a lack of empirical research that explores the potential for sexual harassment amongst children at younger ages. This pioneering study used qualitative methods, including observations and interviews with parents and teachers, to examine the concept of sexual harassment amongst children age 4 to 7.5 years in three educational settings in Israel.  The goal was to establish whether sexual harassment occurs in Israeli pre-school settings and, if so, to evaluate the extent of the phenomenon and to understand its importance amongst practitioners and parents. The study found that sexual harassment is a feature of life amongst young children, and that it generally begins with boys crossing of so-called ‘gender borders’ (Throne, 1993).  Thus, this study sought to redress the balance by illustrating how heterosexuality is part of the everyday experience of primary school children. Harassing boys seek to demonstrate power and to gain status amongst their peers, and usually act in informal situations where adult supervision is lacking.  Young boys who harass are in the process of constructing their masculinities within a specific site (Skelton, 2001). Parents showed strong reactions to sexual harassment amongst young children, especially fathers to girls.  Teachers responded to a year of observations and discussion by developing further awareness of sexual harassment and ways to deal with it. Harassing behaviour is likely to be influenced by the prevalent familial and social norms in society.  Harassing boys appear to imitate both adults behaviour and patterns they absorb from the media.

Following the introduction of the 1998 Northern Ireland Act and the 2000 Human Rights Act (Northern Ireland) the issue of sexual orientation has been thrust into the spotlight of media and political attention in this part of the U.K. Research has suggested that the level of homophobic violence in Northern Ireland is considerably higher than in other regions of the U.K. This investigation focuses on experiences of homophobic abuse and, in particular, the homophobic school bullying experienced by young gay, lesbian and bisexual people in the Province. A Grounded Theory approach was adopted in the investigation process, and, in order to enhance the reliability and validity of the study, methodological triangulation was employed to collect data. The research tools included a structural questionnaire and semi-structured in-depth interview. A total of 83 individuals participated in the quantitative research, whilst 12 respondents took part in the qualitative phase of the study. Respondents described the heterosexism which impacted on their everyday social encounters and interactions with peers, teachers and other individuals within their social circle. It was believed the heterosexist ethos within schools and wider society contributed to the homophobic bullying of pupils suspected of being lesbian or gay, or those who did not conform to traditional gender stereotypes. Respondents maintained that heterosexism and homophobic bullying resulted in feelings of isolation, alienation and exclusion. In addition, negative experiences at school were felt to have a prolonged negative impact on emotional and physical wellbeing and development. This thesis thus makes an important contribution to the understanding of homophobic bullying and its impact on young non-heterosexual people living in this region of the U.K.

My inquiry sits within the reflective paradigm. I start from an understanding that knowing myself better will enhance my capacity for good action in the world. Through questioning myself and writing myself on to the page, I trace how I resist community formations, while simultaneously wanting to be in community with others. This paradox has its roots in my multiple experiences of being bullied, and finds transformation in my stubborn refusal to retreat into disconnection. I notice the way bullying is part of my fabric. I trace my resistance to these experiences in my embodied experience of connecting to others, through a form of shape-changing. I see how question-forming is both an expression of my own bullying tendencies, and an intention to overcome them. Through my connection to others and my curiosity, I form a networked community in which I can work in the world as a network coordinator, action-researcher, activist and evaluator. I show how my approach to this work is rooted in the values of compassion, love, and fairness, and inspired by art. I hold myself to account in relation to these values, as living standards by which I judge myself and my action in the world. This finds expression in research that helps us to design more appropriate criteria for the evaluation of international social change networks. Through this process I inquire with others into the nature of networks, and their potential for supporting us in lightly-held communities which liberate us to be dynamic, diverse and creative individuals working together for common purpose. I tentatively conclude that networks have the potential to increase my and our capacity for love. Through this research I am developing new ways of knowing about what we are doing as reflective practitioners, and by what standards we can invite others to judge our work. I am, through my practice, making space for us to flourish, as individuals and communities. In this way I use the energy released by my response to bullying in the service of transformation.

With the increasing prevalence of childhood and adolescent obesity, more young people than ever before are at risk of stigmatisation and psychosocial consequences of obesity. This research consists of two individual studies exploring the social and psychological experiences of obese young people. One study investigated the relationship between obesity, bullying, and self-esteem in preadolescents. Data was examined from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), including anthropometric data (height and weight) measured at age 7.5 (n = 8210) and 8.5 (n = 6792), and psychological data (overt (n = 7083) and relational (n = 6932) bullying, and global self-esteem (n = 6942)) collected at age 8.5. Objectives of this study were to investigate if weight status (underweight, average weight, overweight, and obese) predicted bullying involvement concurrently or prospectively over a one year period. Global self-esteem scores of obese preadolescents were also examined. Obesity predicted overt bullying involvement. Preadolescent obese boys and girls are likely to be victims of overt bullying because they deviate from appearance ideals, while other obese boys may use their heightened physical strength to bully peers. No evidence was established of significantly lower self-esteem in obese preadolescents. The second study, qualitative in nature, explored global and physical self-perceptions of five obese female adolescents, and the impact of these self-perceptions on peer relationships and weight management behaviours. Multiple in-depth interviews were conducted, in addition to single interviews with the mothers of these adolescents. Interview transcriptions were analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. One case provided unique views of high self-acceptance, high self-confidence, positive self-esteem and independence. The other cases exhibited lower self-esteem related to body dissatisfaction, heightened self-awareness, and self-consciousness. These self-perceptions affected the development and strength of peer relationships. Physical self-perceptions included heightened physical strength, ‘functional’ problems of an obese body and restricted physical activity. Social and psychological consequences of obesity are unique, suggesting individual differences in social development and behaviour. Theoretical implications to enhance self-perceptions and practical implications for weight management are discussed.

Conflicting results from published school-based anti-bullying initiatives have prompted psychologists to suggest that advances in tackling bullying will rely upon developing a greater understanding of the psychological processes underpinning bullying behaviour. This thesis aimed to address this issue by attempting to clarify the coping processes engaged in by pupils experiencing peer aggression or bullying. In order to achieve this aim, pupils’ use of coping strategies was examined within a transactional coping framework, where coping was conceptualised as a dynamic interaction between the person and their environment. Participants were 837 pupils (318 P5s, 306 S1s, 213 S2s; 48.4% male) attending mainstream Primary and Secondary schools in Scotland. Pupils completed a range of measures, at five different points in time, over a period of approximately 18 months. Variables measured at more than one data point included victimisation, appraisals (threat, challenge, control), coping strategy use, and psychological well-being (depression, self-esteem). Variables measured once included sociometric status of P5 pupils, self-efficacy of S1 and S2 pupils, bullying behaviour and emotional reaction to peer aggression. Five separate studies are reported, each focusing on a different aspect of the coping process: the stability and persistence of bullying; how pupils cope with different types of bullying; how pupils’ appraisals, emotions and coping strategies are related; the self-efficacy and hostile attribution biases of pupils involved in bully-victim problems; and the efficacy of coping strategies for maintaining psychological well-being and preventing subsequent bullying. Findings support the utility of the transactional coping model for examining coping among bullied pupils, and highlight the need to incorporate appraisals of, and emotional reactions to, bullying when researching coping responses. Furthermore, results indicate that different types of bullying are coped with in different ways, and that a “vicious circle” may operate whereby victimisation leads to further victimisation. Such findings are discussed in relation to their potential impact upon future intervention strategies, while suggestions for future research examining pupils’ coping strategies are also considered.

This study identifies the negative effects of bullying behaviour on thirty people in their place of work. Personality differences between participants in the study who claim to have been bullied and a matched control group, and the coping strategies employed in stressful periods were sought. Possible individual and organisational antecedents to bullying were identified. In addition, to using psychometric measures to obtain quantitative data the findings were enriched by including qualitative research methods.

This thesis explores heterosexual, lesbian and gay sexualities in two secondary schools in the North East of England. By applying anthropological theories about social rules and pollution rituals, it broadens our understanding of the complex and contradictory experiences of and responses to harassment and bullying adopted by different professionals (teachers, education social workers, youth workers and a school nurse) and by young people. Inspired by professional experiences as a social worker with young people, and by the writings of Mary Douglas, the research began with a six-month work placement and exploratory study in a local authority education department. Subsequently, data was gathered from sixteen individual in-depth interviews with professionals and three group interviews with nineteen young people. Results revealed a range of contradictory understandings and responses to the harassment and bullying of many lesbians and gay people.  Professionals and young people highlighted a number of recurring themes around communication and appearance, the formal and informal curriculum, and invisibility.  There were considerable parallels between the results and the literature in relation to language, bullying, sex education and compulsory heterosexuality. Participants felt that gender and age differences were important as well as sexuality differences, and made comparisons between boys and girls, young people and adults, and heterosexuals and homosexuals.  Other differences were also found to be important. Teachers were more fearful than everyone else (the education social workers, youth workers, school nurse and young people) about lesbian and gay issues.  Teachers had less contact with lesbian and gay young people than did the other professionals (education social workers, youth workers and school nurse). Professionals expressed less homophobia than young people. Applying Mary Douglas’ analyses of social rituals and rules about pollution and danger to these results provided a new perspective for understanding the harassment and bullying of young lesbian and gay men in schools.  Her theories offer an explanation for the ambiguities and dissonance that the professionals and young people experienced in their schools. This explanation forms the basis of a new understanding on which to build a more coherent and useful context for future research and professional practice.  For example, researchers might strategically and specifically examine the ambiguities in sexual language, and professionals could incorporate ideas about minimising differences and managing ambiguity in their training.

This thesis investigates three issues in relation to governments’ policies towards the Further Education (FE) sector between 1992 and 2003.  This investigation entails using lengthy, semi-structured interviews with four senior post- holders within the FE sector (all of whom were influential during the period of the changes) and a comparison of their views with those from government policy documents, policy statements and secondary literature.  This data explores first, the ideologies behind the incorporation of the FE college sector, as FE colleges were taken out of Local Authority control and incorporated into their own independent organisations.  This ideology is found to be centred on the concept of new managerisalism, which postulates that managers should be allowed to manage.  This means that any democratic accountability structures and other controls that are perceived to inhibit management freedom in the public sector have to be removed.  Secondly, this thesis analyses the ideologies of incorporation, and reviews the motivators that persuaded the newly elected Labour Government in 1997 that there needed to be a change from the Further Education Funding Council (FEFC) model of FE to that of the Learning and Skills Council (LSC) model.  The dominant motivators cited by the respondents for this phenomena were the problems in some FE colleges of bullying and mismanagement, sleaze, uncontrolled expansion of franchised provision and a failure of the governors in many FE colleges to make their senior management accountable.  Thirdly, the thesis seeks views on the likely effects of the LSC on the FE sector and the possible effectiveness of the different ideologies of the LSC, compared with those of the FEFC.  Respondents felt that the LSC planning model proposed, might not work in practice in the way that the LSC intended, as they felt it was extremely difficult to obtain accurate data on skill needs from which FE colleges could work.  The thesis also shows that the senior post holders’ views strongly reinforced the expectations of the secondary literature and government policies.  There is also a concurrence among the interviewees, that the structural changes made by Government in the FE college sector since 1992, have brought (and may bring) some negative consequences for FE colleges.

Bullying occurs in most schools to a certain extent. However, this does not mean bully-victim relationships should be considered to be acceptable.  Being the victim of bullying has been associated with a range of maladjustment variables in children, including depression, anxiety, low self-esteem and post-traumatic stress.  Depression is the internalising symptom that has been most strongly associated with victimization (Hawker and Boulton, 2002).  Yet there has been little research into either protective or risk factors for depression in victimized children.  Theories of depression following stressful life events would suggest that social support and cognitive vulnerabilities are two important factors to investigate.  The first paper explores the literature on bullying and theories of depression in children.  The review brings these two areas of research together by examining social support and cognitive vulnerabilities in children. The current study had two aims.  Firstly, to investigate whether social support protected children from depression and secondly, to investigate whether cognitive errors were a risk factor for depression in victimized children.  A cross-sectional design was used to compare victims and non-victims.  Victimization was assessed by peer nomination and depression, cognitive errors and social support were assessed by self-report.  Data were analysed using t-tests, analysis of covariance and correlations.  Results supported the hypothesis that depression is associated with victimization.  When cognitive errors were controlled the difference in depression scores between victims and non-victims was reduced.  Social support had different effects in boys and girls.  Limitations of the study and implications for future research are discussed.