This thesis comprises three studies that explore the attitudes and beliefs of prison staff and prisoners towards HIV and hepatitis B and C prevention policy in prisons. Analysis of the factors that influence the way prisoners and prison staff view prevention strategies highlighted some important issues form the perspective of the people most closely involved with implementation of prevention policy. The exploration of these issues was complex due to the security, legal, cultural and ethical issues that had to be considered. A case study approach incorporating qualitative and quantitative methods was used to try and embrace the complexity of the research aim. A qualitative foundation for staff and prisoner interviews was used for two reasons; firstly, so that the views of the researcher were not imposed and secondly, because there were few prior research studies to base the current study on. In addition, as prisons differ in security category and in the types of prisoners held, it was presumed that developing the research to give a wider representation of the issues would be valuable; this overview was achieved by questionnaire. Data were collected from ten prisons, there were forty-one in-depth staff interviews from three types of prisons; data from 182 questionnaires from 7 prisons and 18 in-depth interviews with prisoners from the three prisons where staff were interviewed. The results show that he predominant concern of staff is that the prevention policies discussed in the study are to do with sex and drug misuse; activities considered illegal within the prison environment. Staff believed that some of the prevention measures concerned with educing the risk associated with injecting drug use conflict with their discipline and security role and also conflict with the drug strategy policies that focus on eradicating drug use in prisons. Opiate detoxification programmes, abstinence based therapeutic programmes and drug-free areas were viewed most positively by staff and were portrayed as most closely aligned to their security and discipline role and the role of prisons in society. Most staff believed that providing condoms in prison would also act against their discipline and security role. This is principally because of the potential to conceal or smuggle drugs using condoms and also because the stigma of same sex relationships in prisons may lead to aggression and bullying from other prisoners.

This study examined the enemy images as perceived by young children in two countries. The children’s sources of information as well as whom or what they conceived as a protector from the enemies were also inquired. The field of enemy images among young children is hitherto a relatively unexplored one. However, the study was influenced by more general literature on how children perceive their social environment, and in particular by the writings of Lambert and Kilneberg, Vygotsky, Cullingford, Dragonas and Frangoudaki. The empirical part of the study took place from January 1966 to February 1997 with 171 school children aged five to nine. It was conducted in Greece (in a big city and an island) and in Britain (in a small English city). Due to problems of access the number of British children involved in the research was much smaller than the Greek one. The data collection methods included semi-structured group interviews and a projective exercise, where children were asked to produce a drawing of an enemy. The children conceived specific groups or individuals as enemies. The following main enemy images could be distinguished: a. enemy-warriors (often countries that had been in a war conflict with their country in the past); b. enemy-criminals (people doing evil things, threatening the society; sometimes crime was associated with specific social groups, such as “the immigrants”); and c. enemy-acquaintances (other children at school or from the peergroup. Some cases of bullying were also reported). A number of sub-categories of enemy images were also identified. Almost all the interviewees described the same enemy images. They did, however, give different emphasis and meaning on what it is to have enemies, depending on their age, gender and place where they were from. The research suggested that the social context in which children live and grow up has the major role in the formation of enemy images; children’s age and gender also appeared to influence the images children held.

This thesis is concerned with the interactions between staff and interactions in the classroom in regard to bullying among pupils in primary schools in Norway. The main investigation comprised 22 primary schools. A total of 2002 pupils, grades 4-6, and 279 teachers participated. Information was obtained through the use of one questionnaire developed specifically for pupils, and one developed for teachers. Only two of 15 selected schools were significantly different from each other on both Bullying Others (BO) and Being Bullied (BB). The school low on BO and BB also had significantly better scores than the other school on all staff related variables. Information from all 22 schools, comprising 118 classes, was used in a class level study of the relationships between classroom management, social interactions between the pupils in the class and class level estimates of BO and BB. Both high scores on classroom management and high scores on social interactions between the pupils were strongly and negatively related to bullying others, and negatively but more weakly related to being bullied. To consider the problem of causality more closely, a small-scale field experiment was conducted with two groups of first grade teachers, each group consisting of 20 teachers and their classes. Two groups of control classes were included. The teachers in the field experiment were offered four one-day seminars plus group counselling during the first school year. At the end of their first school year, the pupils in the two experiment groups and those in the two control groups were compared. The pupils in the experiment groups scored significantly better than the control groups on bullying others, and being bullied, as well as on all other 8 variables studied. The thesis concludes with a discussion of the results, and a theoretical model is suggested.

Bullying has become a pervasive problem in schools throughout the world. Although there has been an increasing research interest in many different countries, only a small number of studies have been carried out in Northern Ireland. The aim of this thesis was to identify the nature and extent of bullying in schools in Belfast. The stability of these problems over a one year period and the effect of bully/victim status on children’s peer relations and self-esteem, were examined. 8% of children at stage one (n=157) reported bullying others, 29% experienced bullying and 17% were involved as a bully-victim. At the final stage there was an increase in the number of bullies, with a corresponding decrease in victim and bully-victim reports. Despite this, there were identifiable groups of children who were repeatedly involved in bully/victim situations. There was a significant difference in the social status and reputation of children more accepted by their peers and perceived as sociable and aggressive, than children less involved. Stable victims were both rejected by their peers and had a negative social reputation, than any other group. Furthermore, the results indicated that repeated victimisation was related to low levels of self-perceived competence, whereas the self-esteem of stable bullies was comparable to not involved children. Overall, the extent of bullying problems indicated in this study and their effects on peer relations and self-esteem indicate that further research is needed in schools throughout Northern Ireland. The contribution that this study makes in relation to the existing body of knowledge on bully/victim problems in schools is discussed.

The thesis examines various descriptions of bullying in fiction, biography and autobiography, comparing a traditional image of a bully with the more modern concept which enables many actions to be described as bullying. The difference between a description and a definition of bullying is explored using an analogy with the word “murder”. Murder can be achieved in many ways – stabbing, shooting, poisoning etc but none of them defines murder, the terms describe the means by which murder is undertaken. Bullying, in like manner, has no precise definition – merely a series of descriptive terms. Many writers have described the difficult experiences of young people at school – possibly because of their parentage. The children of teachers, policemen, famous people seem to attract a high level of attention because of their parentage. The school experiences of Prince Charles, Graham Green, Sean o Faolain, James Joyce and others are examined. The objective of the research was to examine the possibility that parental occupation might be a factor in bullying. Fifty children, in twenty schools, who were attending a school in which at least one parent was a teacher were asked to complete a questionnaire which was a modified form of the Olweus (1993) survey – (modified to include data on parental occupation and other family details) as well as interviews with students and teachers, 380 other children in five different schools were asked to complete the same questionnaire. The results were then compared. Many children experienced bullying but only a tiny percentage actually get bullied. Such a distinction is discussed. The possible application of literary extracts to illustrate examples of bullying and other acts of interpersonal aggression, to identify bullying and to show coping mechanisms is suggested and an anthology of such extracts is offered in a substantial appendix.

The study firstly identifies the level, and nature of bullying behaviour in 3 mixed urban comprehensive schools and secondly considers how school differences might affect bullying behaviour. Finally it examines the perceptions of those most closely involved, the pupils and the teachers. An adapted version of the questionnaire used by Olweus (1989) in his Scandinavian studies and in turn adapted in Britain by the Sheffield Bullying Project team (see Ahmad et al., 1991) was used to collect data from 1,155 pupils (514 girls, 641 boys) related to the aims of the project. Interviews with 60 pupils and 32 teachers, which included tutors and members from the senior management teams in each school, enabled information to be gathered from diverse sources and this illuminated the phenomenon from differing perspectives. The two principal instruments of investigation, questionnaire and interview, were supplemented by the use of documents and records where available and relevant. The research findings indicated that the three schools in question have an above average level of reported bullying which includes a high rate of non-physical bullying, primarily name calling and verbal threats. One of the main findings related to school differences, highlights the effect of awareness raising among pupils and subsequently the increased likelihood of pupils to report bullying behaviour. Surprisingly teachers in the same schools predicted higher levels of bullying than the pupils themselves who felt bullying in their schools was average to low. Teachers’ perceptions about bullying appeared to be less affected by school differences than by personal experiences. Pupils who had experienced bullying were not likely to volunteer to be interviewed and among this group differing or contrasting perceptions were linked to the length of time or severity of the bullying, how it had been dealt with and the part the victim had played in overcoming adversity, rather than any school differences.

This thesis is an investigation of social problem-solving skills, psychological distress, and supportive relationships among three distinct samples. The research groups comprise a) 25 depressed inpatients and a matched comparison group; b) 50 hospital admissions following an act of suicidal behaviour; and c) 5 sub-groups of incarcerated young offenders (inmates on Strict Suicidal Supervision, inmates on protection, victims of bullying, identified bullies, comparison group) with 25 inmates in each group. Data was collected by structured interviews, standardised psychometric measures of mood states (e.g. Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, Beck Hopelessness Scale), problem-solving ability (e.g. Means-Ends Problem-Solving Procedure) and supportive relationships (e.g. Significant Others Scale). Data were analysed by means of parametric statistical techniques (e.g. analyses of variance and multiple regression analyses). Eight cross-sectional studies are reported. Depressed patients demonstrated problem-solving difficulties, which were related to the level of psychological distress experienced. Clinically depressed patients were also found to differ from a comparison group in their autobiographical memory recall and concentration ability – both of which were related to their impoverished problem-solving ability. Deficits in problem-solving ability in the depressed patients were not an artefact of their verbal IQ. Regression analyses of the data relating to suicidal community inpatients illustrated that social support variables were the prime predictors of suicidal intent, depression and hopelessness. Social problem-solving variables also emerged as significant predictors of psychological distress, albeit to a lesser extent. Social support and problem-solving variables were also important moderator variables in the relationship between stress and suicidality. The studies conducted with young offenders illustrated a hierarchy of problem-solving deficits and psychological distress among the inmate groups. Problem-solving ability was not an artefact of verbal IQ. The value of using problem-solving interventions with vulnerable offenders is discussed. The importance of prison relationships in the experience of stress by inmates was also highlighted. Similarly, parental relationships were related to the levels of distress experienced while incarcerated. The results of each study are discussed in relation to the relevant literature, practical implications for clinical interventions with each group, and suggestions for future research. The findings of the thesis are discussed in relationship to transactional, stress-hopelessness-distress models of psychological illness and distress.

This thesis examines the experience of pupils negotiating their early adolescence within their secondary schools. Specifically, the focus is upon sexual bullying; the sexualised hostility and interpersonal conflict between pupils, and its role in the structuring of gender relations within the peer-subculture. The research adopts an ethnographic method, interviewing and observing pupils within the schools over a five year period. The existing research on bullying in schools is criticised for its concentration on psychologistical variables of deviancy within individual children at the expense of political and cultural factors. An attempt is made by this study to reproblematise the current theories on bullying in schools, and reconceptualise the phenomenon of bullying in terms of gender and cultural studies. From this perspective, a continuum of oppressive behaviours can be seen in operation, with homophobia and misogyny implicated in the practices and processes of pupils’ construction of sexual and gender identities. The extent of the effects of these practices upon general social relations in school are discussed, and the dynamic relationship between the subcultural value systems and official organisation of the school is explored. The schools’ formal structures of discipline and control of large numbers of maturing young people are analysed in terms of their unintended consequences. An examination is made of the schools’ official discourses on competition and normality, and of the adoption, distortion and intensification of those discourses by the pupils within their own value system of personal reputation. The study then analyses their effects on the forms of gender policing carried out by the subculture.

Bullying is widely acknowledged as an insidious form of victimization that is prevalent within our schools. In the context of a wider society that may in itself be racist, racial bullying in schools is beginning to be acknowledged both in the academic literature and the media. However, studies of ethnicity and bullying are scarce. The present study aims to highlight the experiences of bullying at school for both ethnic minority and ethnic majority pupils. In particular, the relationship between ethnic identity and the experience of bullying is examined. A total of 199 secondary school pupils aged between 12 and 13 years (Year 8) from an inner city school in Leicester participated. Two questionnaires were completed which assessed their experiences of bullying and ethnic identity. Significant differences were found for ethnicity regarding the overall experience of being bullied, with ethnic majority pupils reporting experiencing more bullying than their minority peers. Ethnic minority pupils were more likely than ethnic majority pupils to experience bullying with a racial content. No relationship was found between the effect of racial bullying and ethnic identity status. Some gender differences reported in the literature were reflected in the results of this study. The results proved difficult to interpret and a critical discussion of methodological limitations is offered. Implications of the findings for schools, and the clinical implications for psychology are discussed. Future research needs are also considered.

Baden Road School was part of a Sheffield Project and results in 1992 indicated that bullying among pupils was getting worse. Unfortunately, bullying among pupils is usually covert and tends not to affect teachers in the same way that disruptive behaviour does. Despite the introduction of an anti-bullying policy little was done by the school to alter the trend. Curriculum has been at the forefront of planning and evaluation in school and the issue of bullying has failed to be reviewed. Teachers were already burdened trying to implement the 1991 National Curriculum orders when, with Government pressure to cut costs, the LEA closed a local primary school and class sizes increased by at least 10%. In the same year the junior school amalgamated with the infants to form Baden Road Primary School with a 3+ to 10+ age range and where the number more than doubled from 220 to over 500 pupils. In a second attempt to persuade the school that something must be done about bullying, case study was a useful way to collect more evidence. While experts cannot agree on a standard definition of bullying, as children are the real experts of what happens, the pupils at Baden Road School found the task easy providing a basis for other data about bullying to be analysed. The case study then gave rise to action research which examined closely appropriate preventative and interventionist methods. Name-calling emerged as the most common form of non-physical bullying in school. Language was found to be critical as a way by which children determine who is bullied and who is not and as a solution to bullying behaviour. While the language used by Baden Road pupils is not representative of any other school it served to demonstrate connections between teasing, bullying, toleration and their effect on pupils. A model hypothesis arose from the question of what determines offensive and tolerable name-calling. The evidence suggests that Baden Road School needs to change to planned routine ways of preventing bullying and intervening in the cases which develop. First though, teachers have to believe that the issue of bullying needs reviewing and evaluating. The success of this study is in the effect it has on facilitating any changes which will promote further awareness, a permanent anti-bullying ethos and better uniform ways victims and bullies are helped in school. Teacher support, as in any school, is critical to the degree of success or failure of this initiative.