The present thesis investigated a phenomenon in South Korea, which corresponds to bullying with respect to terms, perceptions, origins and moral reasoning. These were examined by three main studies across various age-ranges. Study 1 examined terms for and perceptions of bullying-like behaviours in South Korea using a qualitative approach, from young children to adults. Results showed that wang-ta was the term predominantly used to describe bullying-like behaviour in South Korea. Depending on types of aggression and participants’ ages, different terms emerged showing historical changes within a culture. 10-15 years old pupils used their own terms, different from wang-ta; and workplace personnel and 10-15 year old pupils showed negative attitudes towards victims. Previous studies showed that bullying–like behaviours among young children differ in some ways from those of older children. Study 2 investigated bullying-like behaviours among 6 year olds in South Korea using peer, self, and teacher reports; and examined bullying roles in relation to various types of aggression and peer status. Results showed that depending on informants, bullying roles were nominated differently; the role of aggressors showed higher consistency across informants than other roles. Relational victimisation was seen differently depending on informants. One of the theories for why some people engage in bullying-like behaviours has focused on their moral understanding about aggressive behaviours. Study 3 investigated moral reasoning about aggressive behaviours in terms of types of aggression, age, gender, and experience of aggression. Sixty 7 year olds and ninety 11 year olds from South Korea participated. Results indicated that moral reasoning about aggressive behaviours differed by type of aggression and children’s age. Social exclusion was regarded as less wrong and less harmful than other types of aggressive behaviours. Gender differences were rarely found. The results are discussed in terms of pupils’ attitudes toward wang-ta in South Korea.

Much has been written in recent years of a ‘crisis’ in the recruitment and retention of midwives in the NHS. The crisis has been attributed variously to burnout, a lack of professional autonomy, a bullying culture, and an ideological conflict between the way in which midwives wish to practise and the way they are required to practise within large bureaucratic institutions, such as NHS Trusts. Negotiating these experiences requires a significant amount of emotional labour by midwives, which they may find intolerable. This thesis explores the strategies NHS midwives deploy in order to continue working in NHS maternity services when many of their colleagues are leaving. It examines the extent to which working in a midwife-led service rather than a consultant-led service helps or hinders midwives’ capacity to manage the emotional and ideological demands of their practice. Ethnographic fieldwork was carried out in a consultant unit and an Alongside Midwife-led Unit (AMU) in two NHS Trusts in England. The findings from negotiated interactive observation and in-depth unstructured interviews with eighteen midwives were analysed using inductive ethnographic principles. In order to ameliorate the emotional distress they experienced, the midwives used coping strategies to organise the people and spaces around them. These strategies of organisation and control were part of a personal and professional project which they found almost impossible to articulate because it ran contrary to the ideals of the midwifery discourse. Midwives explained these coping strategies as firstly, necessary in order to deal with institutional constraints and regulations; secondly, out of their control and thirdly, destructive and bad for midwifery. In practice it appeared that the midwives played a role in sustaining these strategies because they formed part of a wider professional project to promote their personal and professional autonomy. These coping strategies were very similar in the Consultant Unit and the Midwifery Unit. A midwife-led service provided the midwives with a space within which to nurture their philosophy of practice. This provided some significant benefits for their emotional wellbeing, but it also polarised them against the neighbouring Delivery Suite. The resulting poor relationships profoundly affected their capacity to provide a service congruent with their professional ideals. This suggests that whilst Alongside Midwife-led Units may attempt to promote a midwifery model of care and a good working environment for midwives, their proximity to consultant-led services compounds the ideological conflict the midwives experience. The strength of their philosophy may have the unintended consequence of silencing open discussion about the negative influence on women of the strategies the midwives use to compensate for ideological conflict and a lack of institutional and professional support.

School attendance is a high profile issue at both national and local levels, and links have been made between poor attendance and low attainment, poor employment outcomes and antisocial behaviour (Reid 1999, 2002). This small scale research study focuses on a group of young people referred to as school refusers, who experience difficulties attending school associated with anxiety and emotion. This small scale, case study based research revolves around five young people who have been reintegrated into mainstream school following a period at a Short Stay School (PRU) for key stage 3 and 4 pupils with mental health and medical needs. In addition to the young people, participants include their mothers, the learning mentor from the Short Stay School and a mentor from the receiving mainstream school. Findings underline the heterogeneous nature of cases and an experience of school refusal associated with intense emotions for the young people and their parents. Change associated with school and home factors are implicated in school refusal as are factors including social anxiety, bullying, the child/parent dynamic and characteristics of the young person. School refusal is a long term matter requiring ongoing support even after reintegration.

In this thesis I undertake an autoethnographic, phenomenological investigation of the experience of being bullied as a child by an adult; namely my mother, and to some extent my father, throughout my deeply religious upbringing, and its consequences and outcomes in my life. Using as a framework the story of the hero’s journey, I explore through layered storytelling and reflective analysis, how I came to marry a bully, and experience domestic violence, and my response. I investigate the difficulties I encountered in my relationship with my first son as he became a toddler. The areas I cover are the experience of being bullied and the effects on my choice of a partner and on our relationship. As I write I am brought up against my ‘self’ as I look at the concept of intimate partner violence and the subject of violent women, along with family terrorism, and whether or not violence is gendered. I also investigate bullying behaviour between adults, at how bullies and victims are created, and how I came to act out both of these behaviours. I describe my journey through counselling to gaining a new attitude towards children. Other influences which have shaped me, including religion and faith are examined, to see how they have provided resilience, and how these aspects of my life have been transformed to influence how I came to work with and for children in the educational field. I describe how my work has continued to inform and transform my views of the way adults treat children, the recognition that when children behave ‘badly’ there is a cause, and describe why I have a passion to see that adults find new ‘ways of being’ with them.

Empathy is the ability to stand in another’s shoes, to approximate another’s experience, to feel what another feels. According to scientists, sociologists, psychologists, and Nobel Peace Laureates, empathy is crucial for the continuation and flourishing of humankind. When empathy is achieved, and an individual is able to perceive him/herself as the Other, the foundation for both transforming conflict and shifting of fundamental worldviews is possible. This research explores different aspects of conflict, primarily through the lens of bullying. Data was collected and analyzed from over 300 students ranging in age from 8-18 years. In addition, a variety of narrative forms from comic books and graphic novels to theatrical plays based upon ancient mythology to in-depth survey questions are investigated, examining moments where empathy may be experienced and understood by participants. These narratives created by student-participants are interpreted through a Narrative Phenomenology methodology, highlighting students’ perception of themselves as well as their lived-experience in relationship with others. These myriad story narratives reveal important information on ways social justice and human lights education, moral imagination, and adults as models of empathic behaviour might inspire youth to move past bullying and violence toward more compassionately motivated inclusive communities. Central to the research is the Triptych Narrative Method designed by the researcher that is utilized in a variety of settings and determined to be effective in aiding in the development of empathy. Through the identification of a Lacuna Epiphany Space, over which the act of dialogue may create a Lacuna Bridge. it is possible through an empathic-epiphany exchange for participants to become conscious of feeling with another. thereby bridging the often separate sense between Self and Other into a shared experience of Self as Other. This tool has far-reaching applications as well as the potential to assist in the global effort toward awakening humanity to their empathic abilities.

The main aim of the present study was to investigate the factors which contribute to teasing/bullying among children with CLP.  A previous study identified that children with similar types of CLP are not uniformly teased/bullied.  Seventy-five children took part in the study with their parent/guardian on two occasions, therefore the study was a longitudinal investigation using a repeated measures design.  The average time between data collection points was 8 months.  Children completed a teasing/bullying questionnaire and a number of psychological instruments measuring anxiety, self-esteem, depressive mood and behaviour problems. The children also took part in a semi-structured interview schedule specially designed for the present study.  The interview addressed issues specific to children with CLP which are not addressed by any currently available standardised measures.  A parent/guardian of each child completed a parenting stress questionnaire. The results revealed a higher prevalence of at least 16% more teasing/bullying among children with CLP compared to the general population. Teasing/bullying decreased with age among children with CLP. The relationship between teasing/bullying at primary school and increased levels of psychological problems was also identified, although scores were not within the clinical range overall. The role of the parent in developing healthy appearance and speech-related emotion regulation among younger children was identified as a protective factor against teasing/bullying. Recommendations for clinical application relate to the role of healthcare professionals providing care for children with CLP. Clinicians are required to provide support and teasing/bullying related information to children and parents. Part of their new role is also to increase links with the school to help reduce teasing/bullying.

Peer support approaches, where pupils offer formal support to others, are used in schools as an additional source of pastoral care. Previous research shows benefits for whole school environments, pupils who receive support, and pupil peer supporters, but is largely limited to Western case studies, which are often short-term and/or limited to qualitative data. This thesis addresses these issues through cross-national work on peer support use, and longitudinal case studies. Peer support use in Japan was investigated through a qualitative study. A range of approaches was seen and major themes identified, including the evolution of Japanese peer support, conflicts in approaches, and an emphasis upon community. A qualitative study in South Korea explored peer support and other anti-bullying initiatives, both proactive and reactive. Thematic analysis showed the importance of collectivist values, and a gap between policy and practice. Peer support was little used and, despite positive attitudes, barriers were perceived. A comparison of the UK, Japan and South Korea considered the impact of cultural values, education systems and the nature of bullying upon peer support use. Two mixed methodology case studies of peer listening schemes in UK secondary schools were conducted, one over 18 months and another over six months. Both schemes had the general aim of providing additional pupil support, without focus on particular outcomes. Impact upon the domains typically benefited by peer support was evaluated; findings were broadly similar. Pupil awareness of the service was high, but in-depth knowledge was weaker and use was low. Attitudes were mixed, impact upon bullying and school climate was limited, but users and peer supporters perceived benefits. Both schemes evolved to include multiple approaches, and practical factors affecting development and effectiveness were identified. Finally, implications for peer support practice are drawn from the findings as a whole, and future research directions suggested.

Intersectionality is a much-debated concept within gender and race studies, but there are few empirical studies that operationalise the concept in examining work organisations and occupational careers. This thesis applies an intersectional analysis to a study of the UK construction and transport sectors exploring how gender, sexuality and occupational class shape women’s work experiences. Sexuality is one of the least explored intersections, in particular its interaction with class; additionally the thesis addresses gaps in research evidence concerning the experience of women in non-professional occupations in construction and transport. In seeking to avoid prioritising either structure or agency, the research employs a multilevel framework (Layder, 1993) that addresses several dimensions of women’s experience of male-dominated work: the current policy context; women’s choices and identifications in relation to traditionally male occupations; gendered, sexualised and classed workplace interactions; participation in separate support networks and trade union structures; and the interaction of domestic circumstances with work participation. The multi-strategy qualitative methodology includes 50 interviews with key experts and heterosexual and lesbian women working in professional/managerial and nonprofessional occupations in the construction and transport sectors, plus two focus groups with women workers in construction and observation of events to raise awareness of non-traditional work. This intersectional approach permits consideration of both advantage and disadvantage and questions cumulative conceptions that presume, for example, that gender and sexuality compound to disadvantage lesbians at work. The contribution of this thesis is to reveal the circumstances in which sexuality, occupational class or gender is most salient in shaping work identity or experience, together with the ways they interact. Thus sexualised workplace interactions could at times be avoided by open lesbians, but all women were at risk of sexual or homophobic harassment, although it was more prevalent in the workplaces of non-professional women. Interviewees also highlighted benefits of male-dominated occupations, including increased gendered self-confidence from doing ‘men’s work’, and material pay advantages, particularly for nonprofessionals, which in some cases produced a shift in the domestic division of labour within households.

Few studies have focused on the perspectives of children with ‘learning difficulty’ labels in the UK. This exploratory study aimed to investigate the experience of children in a mainstream primary school in London who had been identified as having ‘learning difficulties’. Six children were observed in their school environment, interviewed using props and pictures, and invited to take photos of significant features of their daily lives. Data were transcribed and analysed thematically from a critical realist standpoint. The children in the study were mostly not remarkable from other children, either in their appearance or behaviour, or in their experiences and views. They had a variety of understandings and feelings about the additional support they received, but largely seemed fairly neutral about it and did not seem to feel particularly different from their peers. In contrast with much of the literature, stories of stigma and bullying were not found. This seemed to reflect an inclusive school culture. Some of the children were however noticeably socially isolated from their peers. Teaching assistants played a key role in several children’s lives, and this was largely positive, although their role sometimes constrained opportunities for peer interactions and autonomy. Although the sample was not representative of children with ‘learning difficulties’, the findings point to the possibility that schools can create an environment whereby children with different learning abilities or styles do not experience ‘impairment’ (difficulties with learning) or ‘disability’ (barriers to opportunities). This may only apply to children with milder differences from supportive families, but is consistent with theory that both impairment and disability are socially constructed. Further research is needed into how schools can create such an environment, as well as into barriers to friendships for children with ‘learning difficulty’ labels.

Aims: This study aims to explore how a local mainstream secondary school can adapt their current self-referral peer support service in order to increase its use by vulnerable Year 7 pupils, including those that experience bullying. Method: An action research methodology incorporating multiple methods of data collection was employed as a framework to support the division and implementation of an electronic peer support scheme. Qualitative methods were employed to investigate the barriers to reporting bullying and using the peer support schemes in this school. This data was used to plan adaptations to the school’s current peer support schemes. Results: The study evolved over three action research cycles, with the results from each cycle informing the general action plan for the next. Reflective discussions with participants supported the development of this research study. The division and subsequent implementation of an electronic peer support scheme was accessed by pupils during a four-month period and evaluated positively by a group of Year 7 pupils. However, no pupils out of the Year 7 cohort (N = 257) accessed either the new electronic scheme or the existing face-to-face peer support scheme when they were available over the autumn term of 2010. Despite this, the levels of bullying being experienced by pupils remained the same. Focus group discussions revealed a number of barriers to reporting bullying and increasing the anonymity of the victim, when reporting was the most important way of overcoming the problem of under-reporting. The barriers to accessing peer support, as well as ways of overcoming them, were identified. Suggestions were made to inform an action plan that would contribute to overcoming problems with the scheme. The results are discussed in relation to existing literature and reflections are made in relation to the action research methodology. The study concludes with a discussion of the implications for future research and practice.

This thesis is an ethnographic study of intercultural education discourses and everyday practices in an urban Greek-Cypriot primary school. The pupil population is comprised of Greek-Cypriots, Eastern European economic migrants and increasing numbers of newlyarrived Iraqi-Palestinian asylum-seekers. Despite the introduction of intercultural education policy in 2001, the education system prescribes a monoculturalist and nationalist ethos. At the same time, the limited opportunities for intercultural education training leave teachers uncertain as to how to respond to the increasing diversity. Informed by ethnographic, discursive and intersectional approaches, this study analyses data from fieldwork conducted in this school for a total of three months over a period of three years. The analysis identifies the discursive resources from which teachers draw to talk about diversity in Greek-Cypriot society and construct the Other, mainly in essentialist and negative ways. It also identifies teachers’ constructions of racism on a societal and educational level, including racism denials, minimizations and justifications. The thesis argues that teachers’ constructions of racism inhibit them from recognizing and challenging institutional racism and racialized incidents they observe among their pupils. The study also demonstrates how minoritized children become differentially racialized as groups and individuals through institutional, teachers’ and children’s discourses and practices, regardless of intentionality. As a result, many minoritized children experience school in an environment of harassment. The study discusses the experiences of an Iraqi-Palestinian boy as an example of how intercultural education is implemented. Some teachers’ resistance to the dominant discourses of colourblindness and racism denial, and minoritized children’s negotiation of their racialized positionings create the spaces of ambivalence that are necessary for change. The findings bear implications for policy and practice in terms of teacher training, development of antiracist policies and supportive networks for teachers, changes in the curriculum, and, structural transformations, so that educational opportunities are equally provided to all children.

This research examines in-depth the experience and dynamics of workplace bullying across five major academic teaching hospitals and how employees come to provide meanings to bullying behaviour.  I explore the important role that emotions play in examining the perception of bullying in employees’ work environment, including during processes of organisational change. The research goes beyond individual analysis and focuses on the social context of employees in the work environment.  This provides a significant theoretical approach to the studying of bullying behaviour. In examining bullying behaviour, I have drawn mainly on three theorists, Thomas Scheff (1990, 1991, 1994, 1997), Theodore Kemper (1978, 1979, 1987), and Erving Goffman (1959, 1960, 1961, 1990).  I also draw on the work of other symbolic interactionists such as Blumer (1969) and Mead (1934), among others. The study was conducted using a mixed method-approach incorporating quantitative analysis and in-depth interviews.  In addition to gathering survey data from seven hundred and thirty-one respondents, nineteen respondents were interviewed to explore in closer detail their perception of bullying and its impact, as well as various individual and organisational factors that may have influence on the bullying behaviour. This research has provided important insights to the micro world of employees, and the usefulness of emotions in examining bullying in the workplace. Results showed a considerable amount of individuals who admitted to being bullied.  Verbal bullying behaviour was the most frequent form of bullying reported. In addition, it demonstrated an alarming number who witnessed bullying behaviour (70.6%).  Both research methods not only gave a wide range of accounts of bullying, it also included the methods respondents took in order to deal with bullying behaviour. In addition, the effects of bullying behaviour on employees and their colleagues were also explored.  The results clearly indicated considerable emotional distress to those who reported they were bullied.

The purpose of this thesis was to develop a model that predicts therapy outcome for children and adolescents who stutter, taking the independent variables of initial stuttering severity, self-esteem, anxiety, the psychosocial impact of stuttering, bullying, motor abilities and language abilities into account. In order to address these issues, three new instruments were developed and validated: (1) the Speech Questionnaire to assess the psychosocial impact of stuttering on the child’s life; (2) the Bullying Questionnaire to obtain information about stuttering related bullying; and (3) the MAMS Orofacial Assessment to assess orofacial abilities. Correlations between therapy outcome and the factors initial stuttering severity, language abilities, and orofacial abilities were found. These factors were used to design a predictive model. Relations of the findings to existing models are outlined. The knowledge obtained about the factors that influence therapy outcome may allow clinicians to tailor therapy programs individually towards the needs of the children. To obtain more information about the daily experiences of children who stutter during an intensive treatment a fourth questionnaire, the Daily Questionnaire was developed and validated. Results of a study with 19 participants during a three-week intensive treatment showed a significant relationship between the impact of other people on the previous day and the experience of general speaking abilities of the subsequent day. Furthermore, a correlation between emotions on the previous day and experience of own speaking abilities on the current day was found. Outcomes of the studies presented in relation to existing models are discussed and a new multi-factor model is presented.