This thesis is concerned with the presentation of a three year project investigating mainstream teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion in one Local Educational Authority in the Southwest of England. The study used both quantitative and qualitative techniques. The first phase of the project involved a survey which indicated that educating students with significant disabilities in mainstream classrooms results in positive changes in educators’ attitudes. Here, the study confirmed previous research, which reported that teachers show positive commitment after they have gained mastery of the professional expertise needed to implement inclusive programmes. Further, the survey highlighted the importance and effectiveness of substantial self-reflective critical professional development, which results in the acquisition of generic teaching skills necessary for meeting the needs of all children, as opposed to short term technical responses to specific needs. The qualitative phase of the project involved in-depth case studies of two individual schools which considered the whole issue of inclusion from a holistic perspective. The results of the qualitative phase indicated that there are distinctions to be drawn between integration (seen as “participation”) and inclusion (“participation’ and “belonging”) -this was further highlighted by students’ personal accounts of bullying within the secondary school which described itself as “inclusive”. The qualitative aspects of the study highlighted the conclusion that “inclusive practice” is seen more in terms of integration than inclusion – students have their specific learning needs well met within the schools, but their personal needs are not well supported. The results indicate that in order to achieve inclusion, schools must look to restructuring to support personal as well as social needs. Such restructuring is dependent on specific professional development (as indicated in the quantitative study) which supports the needs of learners within “inclusive” (holistic) frameworks.

The present project of research consists of four different studies. The first study is a correlational investigation conducted with a sample of 285 students from a secondary school in Rome; the aim of the study was a first attempt to look at different possible risk factors explaining bullying and victimisation. These factors are both related to individual characteristics as well as family and social ones. The second study was developed according to the results of the first study, using the same methodology and design but a different sample. The aim was to overcome some of the limitations from the first study, mainly: sample size, type of school and selection of risk factors (individual characteristics). The second study was conducted with a sample of 679 students. Other personal and social variables were included in the design to better explain bullying and victimisation. Results indicate the correlational effect on bullying of individualistic variables such as impulsiveness and coping strategies. The third and fourth studies, conducted with two different samples of students, focus on the evaluation of the efficacy of an intervention programme for the prevention of school violence. Study 3 looks at the effects of intervention programme on student’s attitudes to violence at home and to bullying. To test significant differences, results from an experimental group that received the programme were compared with those of the control group that did not get the programme. The study presents significant changes in attitudes towards violence. The last study looked at the effects of the intervention programme on bullying behaviour. The study collected data before and after the intervention in an experimental group (that took part in the intervention), and in the control group, matched with the experimental one, that did not receive the intervention in order to draw comparisons. The aim was to check for significant changes in the prevalence of bullying and victimisation, types of bullying, and feelings about bullying. Results indicate a significant effect of the intervention on the reduction of victimisation especially in case of girls and older students.

The adequacy of the theory underpinning current careers guidance practice is increasingly being questioned for particular client groups, including girls and women. Key criticisms relate to the philosophy of science that has dominated the research informing these theories, neglect of context, bias in sampling procedures and their failure to take account of changes in the labour market. The research reported in this thesis explores some of the factors that inhibit women’s career development in the UK, as well as some that enhance it, in a way that takes account of these criticisms. The focus is on both the theory and practice. Grounded theory informed the data collection and analysis phases of the research. Two questionnaires, the first of which was completed by one hundred and two participants, provided a progressive focusing of the study. In-depth interviews with nine of the female participants who had experienced discrimination in employment comprised the final stage of data collection. The research highlights, simultaneously, the similarities of the experiences of girls and women compared with boys and men, and the different ways girls and women responded to these experiences. Findings relate both to the contextual and individual factors that have influenced the career development of participants. Discrimination and sexual harassment emerge as important, and the strategies developed by participants to cope are identified. Perhaps most importantly, the research examines the lived experiences of women participants conveyed in their own voices. Implications for careers guidance practice are discussed. An accurate understanding of the context in which women’s career development in the UK occurs is emphasised together with strategies which could improve guidance practice.

This thesis contains two studies, based on systemic thinking and qualitative research methodologies. Both studies address the issue of bullying, social exclusion and similar peer-relationship difficulties, involving deaf children. The first study is a case study of a secondary school which provided integrated education to approximately 25 moderate to severely deaf students. Grounded theory was used to analyse semi-structured interviews with a total of 44 participants drawn from a variety of sub-groups within the school system. The main findings relate to the way the construct of ‘same versus different’ was central to the reaction of the majority group towards the deaf students. The analysis addresses in turn peer reactions to this form of difference; the school’s reaction to this form of difference; and the overt function performed by the specialist staff of meeting the practical needs of the deaf children; and the more covert function the specialist staff performed in managing anxiety generated within the system by this form of difference. From these themes it is possible to offer a systemic analysis of the nature and management of bullying in this school. The second study is a retrospective study with 35 deaf adults drawn form the deaf community and patients from an NHS department of audiology. The participants varied primarily in their level of deafness [moderate to profound] and their educational placements as children. Participants took part in semi-structured interviews which were also analysed using grounded theory. The separate group processes of ostracism and scapegoating were identified as likely causes of some bullying-type behaviour: ostracism as part of the explicit functioning of the group, scapegoating as part of the implicit functioning of the group. Two premises developed in the adult study – boundary actions as a feature of bullying, and the possible relevance of implicit and explicit levels of functioning within systems – were then developed using material from both studies. Two levels of intrapsychic functioning and two levels of functioning in two-person relationships is hypothesised.

Stalking has been variously described as psychological rape, the crime of the nineties, a celebrity problem and a media created moral panic. Despite the high profile of stalking in the latter years of twentieth century, no satisfactory definition exists and the challenges that stalking poses to both the legal system and society have yet to be subjected to rigorous academic evaluation. This thesis redresses this situation by drawing upon a range of methodologies to present a thorough and comprehensive examination of the nature of stalking and the process by which this conduct became perceived as a pressing and prevalent social problem in need of a legislative solution. Having provided an in-depth exploration of the nature of the problem, the efficacy and sufficiency of the legal response is subjected to critical evaluation questioning whether a solution to the problem of stalking can be found in the Protection from Harassment Act 1997.

The main aim of this study was to examining bullying in school from a pupil-based perspective. Study 1 used interviews with fifth and sixth class pupils in five rural and urban primary schools to develop a pupil-based definition of bullying. Analyses identified a number of areas where this definition differed from traditional research definitions. Study 2 examined the reporting of involvement in bullying using this definition. Pupils in fifth and sixth class in 19 schools completed an anonymous self-report questionnaire on their involvement. Although the results showed lower levels of involvement than a recent nation-wide study, there were a number of methodological issues that may explain these differences. Finally, Study 3 developed and tested a method by which pupils designed an anti-bullying educational intervention for use in schools. Assessments of involvement in bullying at pre-intervention and post-intervention were used to identify any changes in involvement. While no significant change was identified, the benefits and effects of involving pupils in tackling bullying were considered. Overall, it was concluded that researching bullying using a pupil-based approach added to our understanding of bullying in schools.

This thesis is presented as three papers. Paper 1, a literature review, examines causes, processes and health effects of workplace bullying. It examines the relationship between adult workplace bullying and health. It discusses the roles of personality factors and environmental and organisational factors in explaining workplace bullying and implications for intervention, prevention and treatment. Paper 2 reports a qualitative study, based on in-depth interviews with ten professional British women who were targets of adult work-place bullying. Data were analysed using grounded theory methods. The study investigated social and psychological processes in workplace bullying. Key themes which emerged included a central category of Change and Continuity in Social Relationships, which described how relationships both inside and outside the workplace developed during bullying. Linked categories were Being Heard/No Being Heard and Maintaining/Losing Self-Worth; these described others’ reactions to workplace bullying and how failure to support targets impacted upon targets’ self-esteem. Paper 3, using the same sample and methods, describes some barriers to targets’ disclosure and recognition of bullying, which have implications for help-seeking behaviours. Overall, this thesis emphasises the role of social processes in explaining the development of workplace bullying and its impacts on targets, and their implications for clinical psychologists.

Stalking – or Obsessional Following – is one of the least researched and most misunderstood phenomenon in contemporary society. It is often primarily related to domestic violence, celebrity harassment or sexual predation. Stalking is a serious behaviour that involves the repeated intentional and malicious following and harassment of a person causing that person to fear for his/her safety. Only the creativity and ingenuity of the stalker limit the variety of specific strategies employed and behaviours displayed. This thesis explores the possibility that stalking behaviour should be considered an addictive disorder. In order to support this theory – Firstly, this thesis reviews legal, forensic psychological, psychiatric and psychological definitions of stalking and of addiction. Secondly, the situation regarding stalking in Ireland is reviewed. Thirdly, the thesis reports on two research surveys conducted on (a) a sample of victims of stalking, and (b) a sample of professionals working with stalkers. All stalkers in question had indulged in distressing and potentially dangerous behaviours ranging from following, loitering in the victim’s vicinity, approaching and sending letters to use of physical violence, causing criminal damage, illegal detaining and sexual assault. The survey questionnaire was devised so that the results assess aspects of stalking behaviour that may be indicative of addictive disorder. The results were compared to the criteria for addictive disorder suggested by Goodman (1990). The conclusions drawn indicate that it could be conceivable to consider stalking behaviour as an addictive behaviour following further and more extensive research. Finally, arising from this research, suggestions are made for suitable treatment and support options for recommendation to stalkers, victims of stalking and people who have been affected by stalking behaviour.

This thesis places children at the centre of the research process to develop an understanding of childhood poverty and social exclusion that is grounded in children’s own accounts of their lives. The study examines historical and contemporary representations of children in poverty, and takes a critical, child-centred, look at current anti-poverty policies. For the empirical part of the study child-centred research methods were chosen to explore the economic, social and relational impact of poverty and social exclusion on children’s lives. Forty in-depth interviews were conducted with children living in families in receipt of Income Support. The interviews covered children’s perceptions of their material, social and familial lives. In addition, seventeen parents were interviewed about issues related to their children’s lives. The child-centred approach continued with secondary analysis of the BHPS Youth Survey, which explored whether Income Support/JSA children differed from other children in the sample, in their perceptions of school. Children’s accounts reveal severely restricted social environments and limited access to economic and material resources. Opportunities for social engagement and participation in shared activities were constrained, affecting social lives and social networks. Within school children highlighted fears of bullying and difference, compounded by inadequate resources for full participation in social and academic life. The quantitative data reveals significant differences between Income Support/JSA children and their non-benefit counterparts, with many Income Support/JSA children indicating disillusionment and disengagement with themselves as students and with their schools. Increased Income Support levels and non-stigmatising provision of welfare-in-kind, targeted directly at children, and informed by children’s own perceptions of need, is recommended to facilitate children’s social inclusion and integration. The findings also inform the development of a conceptual framework with which to conceive a child-centred approach to childhood poverty and social exclusion, one that could incorporate children’s own meanings and perspectives.

Three studies are presented within this thesis that examine the effects of occupational stress, individual coping behaviours and specific dispositional characteristics on well-being. Building on an integrative review of the literature, a theoretical model of the stress process was developed which was based on the general transactional model. Study One was an investigation of stress in trainee social workers using repeated measures methodology. Measures represented the proposed model in order to test it. Study Two investigated well-being, coping, interventions and attitudes towards employer duty of care amongst a sample of Social Service Employees. A high incidence of stress was found, particularly amongst students. Elements in the stress process most important in predicting outcome were negative affectivity and mastery. These elements were also found to have significant interactions with coping styles in the prediction of well-being. Coping behaviours produced two factors: direct and indirect coping. Dispositional coping was more important in the prediction of outcome, although direct coping was generally associated with better outcomes. Qualitative data was collected in Study Three in order to complement the first two studies by providing a context to the quantitative findings. Employee perceptions of the legal responsibility of employers to offer protection from extreme stress and respond effectively to stress related problems were also explored. Results indicated that bullying and violence were sources of extreme stress and that employees were unclear about the help available or their employer’s legal responsibilities.

The dissertation explores post-traumatic stress (PTS) symptoms in bullied adolescents. The initial part of the literature review discusses prevalence, gender differences and developmental aspects of bullying. The risk factors of being bullied are explored as well as the subsequent sequelae. The second part of the review discusses the adolescent trauma literature, particularly focusing on the developmental issues and sequelae. Because only a small proportion of individuals experience PTS symptoms, the moderating and mediating factors of developing PTS symptoms are discussed. The final section of the review brings the two bodies of literature together and argues that some bullied adolescents may actually be experiencing PTS reactions. The empirical study tests the argument proposed in the literature review that bullied adolescents experience symptoms associated with PTS symptoms, exploring the moderating role of social support and mediating role of dissociation. The participants were members of a secondary school (n = 689) who filled in four questionnaires exploring bullying experiences, levels of dissociation and support, and PTS symptoms. The results indicated that those who reported being bullied experienced significantly more PTS and dissociation symptoms that those who reported not being bullied. Over half of those bullied more than once or twice had scores for the Impact of Events Scale which fell in the clinically significant range for PTS symptoms. Dissociation was found to be a mediator between bullying and PTS symptoms but social support was not identified as a moderator. The implications for clinical practice and future research are discussed.

Very little research has been carried out on bullying in infant school children. In this study I interviewed approximately 300 children aged from four to eleven. Three separate waves of interviews were conducted at approximately six-monthly intervals over two academic years; over 200 children were interviewed twice and 110 were interviewed three times. Children were asked questions concerning their experiences of bullying and victimisation, and also questions designed to determine their popularity. They also rated their peers for popularity, bullying and victimisation. Teacher ratings of popularity, and bully and victim status were obtained by questionnaire. Children’s own definitions of the term bullying were obtained. I discuss the implications of these definitions for existing research. Given the lack of consensus concerning the definition of bullying, a non-arbitrary measurement of bullying was derived from principal component analysis (P.C.A.). The same technique was used to obtain measures of victimisation and peer status. In addition, more traditional measures of these topics were investigated. Results using P.C.A. were broadly similar to those using traditional measures. This substantiates the results from studies which use a narrower range of data sources, although the importance of accurately specifying the time-frame was underlined. Results regarding the popularity of bullies and victims were largely independent of the data source; both bullies and victims were found to be less popular than non-bullies and non-victims respectively. A significant proportion of the variance in the popularity variables was related to the discrepancy between the way children see themselves and how others perceive them. Discrepancy may be an indication of low self-esteem; discrepancy was found to correlate significantly with bullying and victimisation. Low self-esteem may be one of several mechanisms which mediate the relationship between peer status and bully or victim status; the possible policy implications are discussed.

Recent research has indicated that vulnerable incarcerated young offenders – such as those placed on formal protection as a consequence of their inability to assimilate into mainstream regimes, victims of bullying, and those who have engaged in or intimated the possibility of suicidal or parasuicidal behaviour all display impoverished problem-solving abilities. Furthermore, the deficits in their problem-solving skills are significantly correlated with the levels of anxiety, depression, and hopelessness these vulnerable prisoners experience. This study evaluated the effectiveness of a time-limited, group-based, problem-solving, training intervention with such vulnerable incarcerated young offenders. A total of 46 prisoners were randomly assigned to either the experimental intervention or a non-treatment condition (23 inmates in each condition). All participants completed measures of psychological distress (HADS, BHS) and self-perceived problem-solving abilities (SPSI-R) at intake, immediately following intervention, and at three-months follow-up. The value of a brief problem-solving intervention was demonstrated in that the intervention participants experienced significant reduction in their levels of psychological distress (HADS, BHS) and an improvement in their self-assessed social problem-solving abilities (SPSI-R). Methodological concerns in the current study are discussed, and directions for future research are highlighted.

This research examines 8 – 11 year old children’s knowledge of bullying including their coping strategies and the effects of bullying on their self-concept. In the pilot study, a semi-structured interview developed from the work of Harris, Olthof and Terwogt (1986) was used to collect information on children’s experiences of bullying. In addition coping strategies which cold be used in the face of bullying, social support networks and the emotional experience of being the victim of bullying were also elicited. The children’s responses were categorised and Bullying Experience Scale and Coping with Bullying Scale were generated. These scales were used to investigate children’s bullying experiences and coping strategies in the main study. In the main study, the profiles of children identified as bullies, victims, both or neither, were investigated using these two new scales and two further scales, the Harter (1985) Self-Perception Profile for Children and the Butler (1994) Self-Image Profile. The aim was to categorise children into bully/victim groups and to determine how the self-perception, self-image, bullying experience and coping strategies of the children in these groups differed and whether there was an effect of gender. The results suggest, contrary to expectation, that it was the children who perceived themselves to be bullies who had the lowest self-esteem and also had more negative self-image compared to the other groups of children. Children who perceived themselves to be bullies, experienced higher levels of bullying than the other groups of children. Primary coping was the most subscribed coping strategy for the ‘bullies’ with the ‘victim’ and those uninvolved in bullying reporting more secondary coping strategies.