The primary aim of this study was to see whether there is a relationship between the experience of being bullied and violent offending in later life. It was proposed that someone being bullied could be traumatised by the experience and display symptoms akin to PTSD, including hypervigilance and heightened threat perception, which may influence the likelihood of their involvement in violence. The study considers the relationship between the experience of being bullied, trauma symptoms and violent offending. Attributional style in relation to all of these variables is also considered as hostile attributional bias was proposed as a possible outcome of being bullied and a factor in increasing the likelihood of violent offending. Research concerned with childhood bullying, its effects, offending, and trauma is reviewed. The study and results are discussed in the context of literature to date. A relationship between the level of bullying experienced and the level of trauma symptoms currently experienced was found. There were no differences found between violence and non violent offenders on any of the measures used but there was a relationship between violent offending and a tendency to make negative attributions about their own actions relating to events. A similar relationship was also found for participants who had experienced bullying but not for those who had bullied others. Possibilities for future research and the implications for intervention and bullying prevention programmes are discussed in light of the findings.

The study is concerned about employers’ liability to protect the mental welfare of employees alongside their physical health. The need for protection is demonstrated in several ways. Firstly, the introduction examines the statistical evidence of harassment in the workplace and its effect on its victims. Secondly, data was collected from nine participants who had taken their employer to court claiming that they had been bullied out of their jobs. These documents which were supplemented in some cases by personal statements, were analysed using the Glaser and Strauss Grounded Theory method tempered with Case Study method. Ethical issues coming to the fore during data collection supplied additional material for a chapter which eflects on problems researchers will encounter when working with vulnerable research participants. Analysis showed the importance of social support for victims and implicated the role the trade unions, the medical and legal professions plays in secondary victimisation for victims of workplace bullying. A review of existing legislation was conducted to determine if internal voluntary guidelines or new legislation would give best protection. Employer-led bullying was identified as the form on which internal guidelines have no impact. Workplace bullying was always found to be morally wrong and the issue of what is legally right but not morally right was discussed. The findings emerging from the analysis together with recommendation to place protection of harassment at work within Health and Safety policies was presented to opinion makers to gauge the level of interest in the investigator’s recommendation that European Union Health and Safety officials should take the lead in advancing legislative change outlawing workplace harassment.

Stalking may be described as an extraordinary crime, one that is easy to commit but difficult to define and prosecute. This is because many activities of stalkers are ostensibly routine and harmless. Section one of this thesis however demonstrates that although English and Welsh law does not define criminal stalking, the general public hold shared ideas on what does and does not constitute stalking behaviour. It is concluded that anti-stalking legislation that does not tightly prescribe stalking acts may best capture public concerns about this highly prevalent form of harassment. Further, researchers in different countries are investigating the same phenomenon in that previous studies have detailed similar patterns of stalker behaviour. Section two reports two victim surveys that provide a preliminary picture of stalking experiences in the United Kingdom. These indicate that both stalking and the victims’ reaction to it are changeable rather than constant, that any person can become a victim of stalking, and that stalkings themselves are a diverse group. Section three deals with the classification of stalkers. First, one specific classificatory factor, the nature of the stalker-victim prior relationship, is focused upon. Evidence that ex-partner stalkers are the relational group most likely to be violent toward their victims is provided, although stranger stalkers are most likely to be convicted for stalking activities. Next, a vignette study demonstrates how social psychological theory can account for the misattribution of ex-partner stalkers’ behaviour. Finally, a taxonomy of stalkers that was specifically created for use by law enforcement agencies is presented. This classification illustrates how different interventions can have varying success according to the type of stalking involved. More generally, this thesis confirms some previous work for the first time with British samples, and provides practical insight into the course and nature of stalking as it occurs in the United Kingdom.

This thesis evaluates the effectiveness of peer mediation programmes in 3 primary schools in Birmingham. It investigates whether the ‘Iceberg’ system of peer mediation training, and the setting up of a peer mediation service, can reduce bullying, and have an effect on the self-concept of Year 5 pupils. The literature review section of the study reviews existing literature concerning peer mediation, humanism in education (humanistic values underpin the mediation process) behaviour management in schools and bullying. These are all areas that are revisited as part of the empirical research. The empirical research has a quasi-experimental research design which uses both quantitative and qualitative analysis. The experiment was set up to answer the main research questions as objectively as possible, given the author’s existing wider involvement in this area of work. Pre test and post-test measures include pupil questionnaires and interviews with teachers and headteachers. The positivist framework of the main experiment, however, proved to be somewhat restrictive in answering some interesting new questions which emerged as a result of the programme not being implemented as planned in 2 of the experimental schools. The findings suggest that peer mediation can be used as a strategy to reduce bullying and improve pupil feelings of empowerment and self-esteem provided it forms part of a wider strategy to empower pupils and improve their personal and social skills. The difficulties of carrying out an experiment in a school setting, however, make the results inconclusive and more research is recommended in order to understand the links between peer mediation, humanistic practices in the classroom, and the apparently central role of the headteacher.

Very little research has been carried out on bullying in infant school children. In this study I interviewed approximately 300 children aged from four to eleven. Three separate waves of interviews were conducted at approximately six-monthly intervals over two academic years; over 200 children were interviewed twice and 110 were interviewed three times. Children were asked questions concerning their experiences of bullying and victimisation, and also questions designed to determine their popularity. They also rated their peers for popularity, bullying and victimisation. Teacher ratings of popularity, and bully and victim status were obtained by questionnaire. Children’s own definitions of the term bullying were obtained. I discuss the implications of these definitions for existing research. Given the lack of consensus concerning the definition of bullying, a non-arbitrary measurement of bullying was derived from principal component analysis (P.C.A.). The same technique was used to obtain measures of victimisation and peer status. In addition, more traditional measures of these topics were investigated. Results using P.C.A. were broadly similar to those using traditional measures. This substantiates the results from studies which use a narrower range of data sources, although the importance of accurately specifying the time-frame was underlined. Results regarding the popularity of bullies and victims were largely independent of the data source; both bullies and victims were found to be less popular than non-bullies and non-victims respectively. A significant proportion of the variance in the popularity variables was related to the discrepancy between the way children see themselves and how others perceive them. Discrepancy may be an indication of low self-esteem; discrepancy was found to correlate significantly with bullying and victimisation. Low self-esteem may be one of several mechanisms which mediate the relationship between peer status and bully or victim status; the possible policy implications are discussed.

Recent research has indicated that vulnerable incarcerated young offenders – such as those placed on formal protection as a consequence of their inability to assimilate into mainstream regimes, victims of bullying, and those who have engaged in or intimated the possibility of suicidal or parasuicidal behaviour all display impoverished problem-solving abilities. Furthermore, the deficits in their problem-solving skills are significantly correlated with the levels of anxiety, depression, and hopelessness these vulnerable prisoners experience. This study evaluated the effectiveness of a time-limited, group-based, problem-solving, training intervention with such vulnerable incarcerated young offenders. A total of 46 prisoners were randomly assigned to either the experimental intervention or a non-treatment condition (23 inmates in each condition). All participants completed measures of psychological distress (HADS, BHS) and self-perceived problem-solving abilities (SPSI-R) at intake, immediately following intervention, and at three-months follow-up. The value of a brief problem-solving intervention was demonstrated in that the intervention participants experienced significant reduction in their levels of psychological distress (HADS, BHS) and an improvement in their self-assessed social problem-solving abilities (SPSI-R). Methodological concerns in the current study are discussed, and directions for future research are highlighted.

This research examines 8 – 11 year old children’s knowledge of bullying including their coping strategies and the effects of bullying on their self-concept. In the pilot study, a semi-structured interview developed from the work of Harris, Olthof and Terwogt (1986) was used to collect information on children’s experiences of bullying. In addition coping strategies which cold be used in the face of bullying, social support networks and the emotional experience of being the victim of bullying were also elicited. The children’s responses were categorised and Bullying Experience Scale and Coping with Bullying Scale were generated. These scales were used to investigate children’s bullying experiences and coping strategies in the main study. In the main study, the profiles of children identified as bullies, victims, both or neither, were investigated using these two new scales and two further scales, the Harter (1985) Self-Perception Profile for Children and the Butler (1994) Self-Image Profile. The aim was to categorise children into bully/victim groups and to determine how the self-perception, self-image, bullying experience and coping strategies of the children in these groups differed and whether there was an effect of gender. The results suggest, contrary to expectation, that it was the children who perceived themselves to be bullies who had the lowest self-esteem and also had more negative self-image compared to the other groups of children. Children who perceived themselves to be bullies, experienced higher levels of bullying than the other groups of children. Primary coping was the most subscribed coping strategy for the ‘bullies’ with the ‘victim’ and those uninvolved in bullying reporting more secondary coping strategies.

Research into school bullying has focused in the main on children aged over the age of 8 years. This thesis attempts to redress the balance and describes a large empirical study investigating the nature of school bullying in a sample of 104 schoolchildren from two Reception Classes and two Year One classes in four London primary schools. The children were aged between 4 and 6 years. The roles taken in bullying were assessed using peer, self and teacher nominations. It was found that children did not nominate others for taking all of the Participant Roles identified by Salmivalli, Lagerspetz, Björkqvist, Österman and Kaukianien (1996), but were able to nominate peers for the roles of Bully, Victim and Defender. When the stability of these roles was examined over intervals of 2 months and 3.5 – 4 months it was found that, although both Bully and Defender status were relatively stable, Victim status was not. Although many children were exposed to victimisation transiently, only for a very few was it a stable experience. Some of the factors found to be related to bullying in older samples were found to support this. Young Victims were not physically weaker than others, they did not exhibit poorer theory of mind skills, neither were they socially rejected by peers or insecurely attached. These factors have been suggested as being potential risk factors for repeated victimisation or consequences of stable victimisation. Young Bullies were found to be physically strong, socially rejected and more likely to be insecurely attached. These findings are similar to those found in older samples of Bullies. However, young Bullies did not exhibit superior theory of mind as has been found in older groups. The understanding of bullying held by younger children and their teachers was also examined. The children held different definitions of bullying than their teachers, and were more likely to consider provoked aggression or a straight fight as bullying than their teachers. Each of these findings are discussed within a framework of the developing roles in bullying.

Stalking has been variously described as psychological rape, the crime of the nineties, a celebrity problem and a media created moral panic. Despite the high profile of stalking in the latter years of twentieth century, no satisfactory definition exists and the challenges that stalking poses to both the legal system and society have yet to be subjected to rigorous academic evaluation. This thesis redresses this situation by drawing upon a range of methodologies to present a thorough and comprehensive examination of the nature of stalking and the process by which this conduct became perceived as a pressing and prevalent social problem in need of a legislative solution. Having provided an in-depth exploration of the nature of the problem, the efficacy and sufficiency of the legal response is subjected to critical evaluation questioning whether a solution to the problem of stalking can be found in the Protection from Harassment Act 1997.

The main aim of this study was to examining bullying in school from a pupil-based perspective. Study 1 used interviews with fifth and sixth class pupils in five rural and urban primary schools to develop a pupil-based definition of bullying. Analyses identified a number of areas where this definition differed from traditional research definitions. Study 2 examined the reporting of involvement in bullying using this definition. Pupils in fifth and sixth class in 19 schools completed an anonymous self-report questionnaire on their involvement. Although the results showed lower levels of involvement than a recent nation-wide study, there were a number of methodological issues that may explain these differences. Finally, Study 3 developed and tested a method by which pupils designed an anti-bullying educational intervention for use in schools. Assessments of involvement in bullying at pre-intervention and post-intervention were used to identify any changes in involvement. While no significant change was identified, the benefits and effects of involving pupils in tackling bullying were considered. Overall, it was concluded that researching bullying using a pupil-based approach added to our understanding of bullying in schools.

This thesis is presented as three papers. Paper 1, a literature review, examines causes, processes and health effects of workplace bullying. It examines the relationship between adult workplace bullying and health. It discusses the roles of personality factors and environmental and organisational factors in explaining workplace bullying and implications for intervention, prevention and treatment. Paper 2 reports a qualitative study, based on in-depth interviews with ten professional British women who were targets of adult work-place bullying. Data were analysed using grounded theory methods. The study investigated social and psychological processes in workplace bullying. Key themes which emerged included a central category of Change and Continuity in Social Relationships, which described how relationships both inside and outside the workplace developed during bullying. Linked categories were Being Heard/No Being Heard and Maintaining/Losing Self-Worth; these described others’ reactions to workplace bullying and how failure to support targets impacted upon targets’ self-esteem. Paper 3, using the same sample and methods, describes some barriers to targets’ disclosure and recognition of bullying, which have implications for help-seeking behaviours. Overall, this thesis emphasises the role of social processes in explaining the development of workplace bullying and its impacts on targets, and their implications for clinical psychologists.

Stalking – or Obsessional Following – is one of the least researched and most misunderstood phenomenon in contemporary society. It is often primarily related to domestic violence, celebrity harassment or sexual predation. Stalking is a serious behaviour that involves the repeated intentional and malicious following and harassment of a person causing that person to fear for his/her safety. Only the creativity and ingenuity of the stalker limit the variety of specific strategies employed and behaviours displayed. This thesis explores the possibility that stalking behaviour should be considered an addictive disorder. In order to support this theory – Firstly, this thesis reviews legal, forensic psychological, psychiatric and psychological definitions of stalking and of addiction. Secondly, the situation regarding stalking in Ireland is reviewed. Thirdly, the thesis reports on two research surveys conducted on (a) a sample of victims of stalking, and (b) a sample of professionals working with stalkers. All stalkers in question had indulged in distressing and potentially dangerous behaviours ranging from following, loitering in the victim’s vicinity, approaching and sending letters to use of physical violence, causing criminal damage, illegal detaining and sexual assault. The survey questionnaire was devised so that the results assess aspects of stalking behaviour that may be indicative of addictive disorder. The results were compared to the criteria for addictive disorder suggested by Goodman (1990). The conclusions drawn indicate that it could be conceivable to consider stalking behaviour as an addictive behaviour following further and more extensive research. Finally, arising from this research, suggestions are made for suitable treatment and support options for recommendation to stalkers, victims of stalking and people who have been affected by stalking behaviour.

This thesis places children at the centre of the research process to develop an understanding of childhood poverty and social exclusion that is grounded in children’s own accounts of their lives. The study examines historical and contemporary representations of children in poverty, and takes a critical, child-centred, look at current anti-poverty policies. For the empirical part of the study child-centred research methods were chosen to explore the economic, social and relational impact of poverty and social exclusion on children’s lives. Forty in-depth interviews were conducted with children living in families in receipt of Income Support. The interviews covered children’s perceptions of their material, social and familial lives. In addition, seventeen parents were interviewed about issues related to their children’s lives. The child-centred approach continued with secondary analysis of the BHPS Youth Survey, which explored whether Income Support/JSA children differed from other children in the sample, in their perceptions of school. Children’s accounts reveal severely restricted social environments and limited access to economic and material resources. Opportunities for social engagement and participation in shared activities were constrained, affecting social lives and social networks. Within school children highlighted fears of bullying and difference, compounded by inadequate resources for full participation in social and academic life. The quantitative data reveals significant differences between Income Support/JSA children and their non-benefit counterparts, with many Income Support/JSA children indicating disillusionment and disengagement with themselves as students and with their schools. Increased Income Support levels and non-stigmatising provision of welfare-in-kind, targeted directly at children, and informed by children’s own perceptions of need, is recommended to facilitate children’s social inclusion and integration. The findings also inform the development of a conceptual framework with which to conceive a child-centred approach to childhood poverty and social exclusion, one that could incorporate children’s own meanings and perspectives.