Section A: Presents a thematic synthesis and appraisal of literature, using a systematic search methodology of qualitative research on the views and experiences of adolescents of social media and well-being. The synthesis revealed four themes, each with positive and negative sides: connections, identity, learning and emotions. Each theme is explored and related to theoretical and extant literature. Clinical implications are provided around each theme, describing ideas of how to work positively with adolescents and social media, while negotiating potential drawbacks. Research recommendations are made concerning extrapolating the factors discussed by adolescents and how to enhance research quality in the area. Section B: Presents a cross-sectional and longitudinal study of the relationship between social media and well-being, in a sample of 497 UK adolescents. Several stress and well-being hypotheses are tested, including the moderating roles of gender and self-esteem that is contingent on friendship quality, within a diathesis-stress model. Results show friendship contingent self-esteem to be significantly related to social media investment, and increased stress to significantly influence well-being change. Findings are discussed in terms of the link between contingent self-esteem and problematic social media investment, stress and well-being. Limitations are considered, and implications for future research and practice are provided.

Physical Education (PE) is the most sex-differentiated and gender stereotyped subject in the school curriculum in England. The long tradition of gendered PE is not reflected in a more contemporary gender-neutral PE curriculum. This disparity is part of a broader theory-practice gap centred on differences between how PE should be and how PE is. Therefore, in this thesis, relationships, identities and behavioural norms in Male PE (MPE) are examined as they are, and not how they should be. A figurational sociological approach is adopted to examine gendered social processes, power relations and masculine embodiment within MPE. The data discussed in the thesis is from a six-month ethnography in Colbeck High School, a religious-affiliated mixed-sex secondary school within the North-East of England. Key findings identified how both enabling and constraining social processes within MPE were configured and subsequently internalised by boys along fairly binary gendered lines. Whilst MPE teachers contributed to this process through using gender slurs, boys’ gendered self-restraints were primarily driven by their desire to be part of, and maintain an affiliation with, the dominant ‘We’ group amongst their peers. In constantly negotiating their identities with the prevailing ‘We’- identity, boys appeared to exercise a more flexible and reflexive self-control when restraining or expressing their emotions according to often gendered social circumstances. This conscious behaviour was evident in boys’ frequent engagement in banter, a behavioural norm which carried much social significance within MPE. Banter was found to be premised on necessary levels of mutual identification and mutual respect, and to differentiate it from inappropriate comments or verbal bullying, boys had to be socially and emotionally aware of their, and other people’s, feelings and intentions. Given this increasingly expected heightened levels of social awareness and emotional sophistication, a case is made to reconfigure academic conceptions of banter from being an immature behaviour to banter as being a sophisticated form of communication. These findings contrast with previous research that tends to overly focus on boys’ physical behaviours as influential in their power relations with peers and key markers of their gender identity by illustrating the increasing importance of verbal exchanges as symbolic forms of power. Furthermore, through identifying the levels of consciousness present in boys’ behaviour and linking this to their exhibiting of a third nature psyche, critiques of attempts to attach boys’ emotional expressions to their innate biological sex or suggestions that boys’ aggression signifies regressions to instinctive impulses are provided. Placing these key findings within broader civilizing processes it seems that long-term shifts from physical to more verbally centred power relations has impacted young people at relational, identity and behavioural levels. There appears to be a heightened need for young people to engage in sophisticated forms of communications and emotional self-restraint before entering adult social worlds, and the MPE figuration provides an illustrative example of this.

Adolescent-to-Parent Violence and Abuse (APVA) is a form of family violence and abuse that has, in recent years, received increasing attention within academic literature. In England and Wales, APVA is beginning to have more of a presence in policing, youth justice and domestic violence and abuse policy. However, there remains a dearth of empirical quantitative research arising from the UK about this topic. In response, this research aims to report the prevalence of APVA from a UK cross-sectional community sample of 890 secondary school students (aged 11 to 18 years). Furthermore, adolescent characteristics and behaviours, familial characteristics, and school bullying experience are measured to ascertain whether these factors are associated with, and can predict, APVA. APVA was found to be prevalent amongst 64.5% of the sample; psychological APVA was more prevalent than physical APVA (64.4% and 4.3% respectively). Significant associations and predictors of APVA have been identified and three statistically significant logistic regression models are presented that can predict the probability of psychological APVA, physical APVA, and severe APVA occurring. This research contributes to the understanding of the experiences and characteristics of young people who exhibit APVA. The findings demonstrate that APVA is a complex phenomenon that is associated with and can be predicted by individual, family and school bullying characteristics. The results have implications for policy and practice, in particular that a holistic and whole-family approach should be taken to the assessment and subsequent planning of intervention for APVA and that APVA can be screened for in universal settings, such as schools. Therefore, awareness raising and prevention strategies could be incorporated into existing policy and practice frameworks. It is proposed that these findings are best interpreted and understood by ecological theories which can provide a useful framework with which to develop future research.

Looked after young people, the focus of this thesis, are young people in state or public care. They frequently have complex family circumstances, socially excluded backgrounds and often intense need. Whilst it is possible to identify trends and patterns in their backgrounds, their needs and requirements are essentially heterogeneous (Bullock, Parker, Courtney, Sinclair and Thoburn, 2006, p. 1346). The research was undertaken within the national context of persistently poor educational, health and behavioural outcomes for looked after young people, evidence from Inquiry reports of historic abuse, and contemporary concerns that small groups of looked after young people may not be safe (Ofsted, 2008d, p. 5). In addition, a dissonance was found between contemporary social policy developments for looked after young people and effective implementation which impacts positively on their experiences and outcomes. Previous research on the topic from the perspective of young people themselves remains under developed. The study aimed to investigate the views of 25 looked after young people who had recently left a placement about their safety and wellbeing whilst in their previous placement. The researcher adopted a case study design, an interpretivist perspective and conducted in-depth interviews using structured and semi-structured methods. The study found most participants felt safe but some felt unsafe to varying degrees. Participants felt most safe from sexual harm and least safe from physical harm and bullying. Carers, other looked after young people and foster carers’ own children were identified as the main sources of harm. Families were identified as the people who were most effective in listening and looking out for participants’ safety and wellbeing. Formal complaints procedures were found to be inadequate for communicating young people’s concerns about their safety and wellbeing. Many participants valued their participation in education and wanted increased participation in all important decisions that would, or could, impact on their safety and wellbeing. A close interrelationship was found between participation, outcomes, power and engagement. The concepts of ‘voice’ and ‘exit’ were applied to the analysis of participation to denote inclusive, empowered levels of participation and, conversely, levels which contribute to disconnection and disengagement. Close trusting relationships with family, friends, carers and social workers were found to be important but often experienced as inadequate. Participants mostly wanted to discuss important, personal issues with people with whom they had a close, personal relationship. High levels of placement discontinuity and complex care arrangements often resulted in disrupted key relationships and contributed to making key information – including knowing the reasons for being looked after – difficult to understand and recall for some participants. Having a clear sense of self history was identified as contributing to self identity, and the building of resilience and wellbeing. The study identified an absence of person centeredness relating to looked after young people. The study compared aspects of UK and European welfare models and found the UK model to be antithetical to the importance of relationships, participation and the centrality of the young person. European social pedagogic models were generally found to achieve greater synergy with young people’s perspectives and priorities. The study concludes by emphasising the close inter-relationship between the key concepts of ‘safeguarding from harm’ and ‘promotion of wellbeing’. Four emergent categories identified from the analysis of findings are proposed as the key components of a new model of safeguarding and wellbeing for looked after young people. These four components are: feeling safe; inclusion and participation; continuity and quality of relationships; and sense of self and self history. In addition to these four components, the defining feature of the model is presented as the centrality of the voice of the looked after young person, with subsequent implications for policy and practice.